.*■-- 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


^r^Tf^/PT?SITY  of  CALIFORNliE 

X   .    i. 

LOS  i-iiviGELES 


T  ^rtrt  A  rtir 


NATURE   STUDY 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS 


5909 


;V><f^° 


NATURE  STUDY 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

A   MANUAL   FOR    TEACHERS 

6  4  3  O 

BT 

LUCY  LANGDON   WILLIAMS  WILSON,   Ph.D. 

Head   of  the   Biological   Laboeatokies   in  the   Philadelphia 

Normal  School  for  Girls,  and  in  Charge  of  the  Nature 

Woke    n  the  School  of  Observation  and  Practice, 

connected  with  the  Nobmal  School 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:   MACMILLAN  &   CO.,  Ltd. 
1899 

All  rights  reserved 


COPTEIGHT,    1897, 

By  the  MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped,  October,  1897.     Reprinted,  January, 
March,  June,  October,  December,  1898. 


J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  Ic  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


15  21 


-  6 


"Facts  are  stupid  things  until  brought  into  connection 
with  some  general  law." 

LOUIS   AGASSIZ. 

"He  is  a  thoroughly  good  naturalist  who  knows  his 
own  parish  thoroughly." 

CHARLES    KINGSLET. 

"  Both  head  and  heart,  — 
Both  active,  both  complete,  and  both  in  earnest." 

ELIZABETH    BARRETT    BROWNING. 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  an  outgrowth  of  a  rich,  varied,  and 
thoughtful  experience  with  child  nature  and  the  nature 
that  surrounds  the  child.  Mrs.  Wilson  recognizes  the 
truth  that  children  have  a  deep,  strong,  instinctive  love 
for  all  things  that  live  and  all  things  that  support  life. 
The  teacher  should  develop  instinct  into  habit  by  making 
spontaneity  the  basis  of  character. 

Nature  Study  to-day  is  pioneer  Avork.  The  prevailing 
methods  of  teaching  nature  are  the  old  methods  domi- 
nated by  the  delusion  of  logical  sequence,  —  of  isolated 
fact  learning.  Mrs.  Wilson's  plan  is  to  study  the  child, 
understand  his  interests,  and  adapt  conditions  to  his 
actual  personal  needs. 

The  old  method  is  founded  upon  a  rigid  faith  in  the 
book  and  traditional  processes ;  the  new  upon  the  divin- 
ity of  the  child  and  the  influence  of  God's  creations  upon 
his  growing  mind.  One  method  is  fixed;  the  other  is 
everlasting  motion  over  the  infinite  line  of  unrealized 
possibilities.  One  method  demands  accurate  imitation; 
the  other,  original  discovery  and  creation.  Under  one 
method  the  teacher  is  a  pedant;  under  the  other,  a 
student. 

The  pressing  need  of  the  hour  is  genuine  students  of 
education,  teachers  who  bring  to  every  child  and  every 
subject  a  mind  full  of  desire  to  know,  an  abiding  faith  in 


Vlll  PREFACE 

bomidless  possibilities,  a  freshness  of  spirit  that  is  in 
itself  the  most  potent  factor  in  education,  a  devotion  that 
inspires  new  contributions  to  the  unlimited  science  of 
teaching. 

This  book  is  such  a  contribution,  and  I  am  sure  it  will 
be  a  great  help  to  many  teachers  who  are  struggling  Avith 
the  problem  of  Nature  Study. 

FRANCIS  W.    PARKER. 

Chicago,  October  20,  1897. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  A  PEELIMINARY  COURSE  OF 
XATUKE  STUDY  FOR  CHILDREN  IN  THE 
FIRST   FOUR   YEARS  OF   SCHOOL  LIFE 

Arranged  according  to  subject-matter 

AVEATHER 

September. — Excursions  and  general  observations  of  the  direc- 
tion and  velocity  of  the  wind  ;  appearance  and  names  of  the 
clouds.  Daily  blackboard  record  of  these  facts.  Rain.  Page 
10. 

October.  —  Continued  study  of  the  appearance  and  names  of  the 
clouds.  Individual  records  made  daily  of  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  its  velocity,  and  the  clouds.  AVhat  the  different  winds 
and  clouds  bring.     The  sun  (first  and  second  yeai's).     Page  63. 

November. — Examination  of  October's  written  record  to  deter- 
mine the  prevailing  wind  and  cloud  forms  for  that  mouth. 
Continued  observation  and  individual  record  of  the  wind,  its 
direction  and  velocity,  and  the  clouds.  Temperature.  The  sun 
(third  and  fourth  years).  Moon  (first  and  second  years). 
Page  85. 

December.  —  Examination  of  November's  record  to  determine, 
as  well  as  possible,  the  meaning  and  prevailing  character  of 
winds  and  clouds.  The  daily  record  for  December  should  now 
include  the  temperature.  Snow.  Stars  (first  and  second  years). 
Page  108. 

January. — Examination  of  December's  record  to  determine  the 
meaning  and  prevailing  character  of  the  winds  and  clouds  ;  the 
average  temperature  ;  the  lowest  and  the  highest  temperature. 
January's  records  should  include  the  rain  or  snow  fall.  Lessons 
on  evaporation,  boiling,  conden.sation.     I'age  120. 

ix 


X  PRELIMINARY   COURSE   OF   STUDY 

February.  — Examination  of  the  January  record  ;  daily  record 
for  February  ;  continuation  of  the  lessons  on  cloud  formation, 
rain,  snow,  hail,  dew,  frost,  and  their  effect  on  plants,  animals, 
stones.     Page  153. 

March,  April,  May,  and  June. — Records  and  examination  of 
back  records  continued. 

PLANTS 
September.  — Autumn  flowers  ;  ferns.     Page  18. 

October. — Flowers  (continued);  fruits.     Page  71. 

November.  —  Falling  leaves  ;  buds  ;  bulbs  ;  fleshy  roots.  Page 
94. 

December.  —  Evergreens  (spruce,  hemlock,  pine)  ;  either  balsam 
fir,  holly,  or  mistletoe.     Page  109. 

January. — Evergreens  (continued)  ;  germination.     Page  133. 

February.  —  Germination  (continued);  seed  food-supply.     Page 

158. 

March.  — Seed  food-supply  (continued)  ;  buds.     Page  169. 

April.  —  Buds  (continued)  ;  trees  ;  spring  flowers.  Excursions. 
Page  199. 

May  and  June. — Flowers  ;  trees  ;  ferns;  mosses;  lichens;  toad- 
stools.    Excursions.     Page  238. 

ANIMALS 

September.  —  Insects.     Page  38. 

October.  —  Insects  (continued)  ;  English  sparrow.     Page  80. 

November.  —  Pigeons ;  cocoons  ;  preparations  of  other  animals  for 
winter.     Page  99. 

December. — Aquarium  animals;  fish;  tadpoles;  snails;  mus- 
sels.    Page  116. 


PRELIMINARY   COURSE    OF   STUDY  xi 

January.  —  Common  winter  resident  birds  ;  beaks  and  feet ;  bones 
and  featliers.     Page  144. 

February.  —  Migrant  birds  from  the  north.     Page  164. 

March.  —  Earthworms;   robin,  bluebird,  blackbird;   bird  migra- 
tions,—  causes  and  phenomena.     Excursions.     Page  184. 

April. — Moths;   butterflies;   beetles;   bees.     Excursions.     Page 
236. 

May  and  June.  — Insects  and  other  animals  brought  in  by  chil- 
dren.    Excursions.     Page  236. 

STONES 

March.  —  Soil ;   mica  ;   sand  ;   clay  ;    quartz  ;    feldspar ;   pebbles. 
Excursions.     Page  177. 

April.  —  Granite;  gneiss;  mica  schist;  soil.     Excursions.     Page 
196. 

May  and  June. — Stones  brought  in  by  the  children.      Excur- 
sions.    Page  254. 


SYNOPSIS   OF   THE   SAME   COURSE 


ARRAXGED    ACCORDING    TO    MONTHS 


September. 
Weather  : 

Appearance  and  Names  of  Clouds 
Blackboard  Record    . 
Direction  and  Velocity  of  Wind 
Excursions         .... 
Eain  ...... 


Plants . 


Aster 

Black-eyed  Susan 

Butter  and  Eggs 

Chicory 

Ferns 

Garden  Nasturtium 

Goldenrod  . 

Ironweed   . 

Jamestown  Weed 

Morning  Glory  . 

Pond  Lily  . 

Sunflower  . 

Thistle 

Wild  Carrot 


Animals : 

Bee 

Beetles 

Cicada  (Locust,  or  Harvest  Fly) 


PAGE 

13 
IG 
15 
15 
17 


29 
31 
32 
27 
36 
34 
28 
27 
19 


29 
24 
32 


55 
48 
47 


xiv  SYNOPSIS   OF  COURSE 

September  —  Animals  :  page 

Dragon  Fly 45 

Fly 58 

Locust  (Grasshopper) 40 

Mosquito 59 

Moths  and  Butterflies  (general)         ....  50 

Tussock  Moth 53 

October. 

Weather : 

Excursions .71 

Records 70 

Sun 63 

Plants  : 

Flowers  {continued) .     See  list  under  September. 

Fruits  : 

Ailanthus 77 

Apple 76 

Ash 77 

Burdock 76 

Chestnut     .........  71 

Maple 77 

Stick-me-tight 77 

Animals  : 

English  Sparrow 80 

Insects  (continued).     See  list  under  September. 

November. 
Weather  : 

Examination  of  October  Record        ....  89 

Moon 86 

Temperature 92 

Plants : 

Buds 94 

Bulbs 96 


SYNOPSIS   OF   COURSE 


XV 


November  —  Plants:  page 

Falling  Leaves  .......=  95 

Fleshy  Roots 96 

Animals  : 

Cocoons 99 

Other  Preparation  for  Winter 99 

The  Pigeon 99 


December. 

Weather . 


Examination  of  November  Record 

Record        

Snow          ..... 
Stars  


108 
107 
108 
103 


Plants  : 


Arbor  Vitse 
Balsam  Fir 
Hemlock  . 
Holly 

Mistletoe    . 
Pine  . 
Spruce 


113 
113 
113 
114 
115 
110 
114 


Animals . 


Fish    . 
Mussels 
Snail 
Tadpole 


119 
127 
124 
122 


January. 
Weather 


Boiling 

Condensation 

Evaporation 


131 
131 
131 


XVI 


SYNOPSIS   OF  COURSE 


Januakv  —  Weather  : 

Examinalion  of  December  Record 
Record 


FAGG 

129 
130 


Plants : 

Evergreens  (continued).     See  list  given  under  De- 
cember. 
Germination 133 

Animals  : 

Beaks  and  Feet  of  Birds 145,  148 

Bones  of  Birds  ........     149 

Crow .144 

Feathers  « loO 

Owl 146 

Woodpecker 147 

Februakt. 
Weathe)'  : 
Clouds 
Dew  . 

Frost 
Hail   . 
Rain  . 
Records 
Snow 


Plants : 

Germination  (continued) 
Seed  Food-supply 

Animals : 

Chickadee  . 

Golden-crowned  Kinglet 
Snowbird   . 
AVinter  Wren     . 


March. 

Weather  : 
•Records 


153 
155 
155 
155 
154 
153 
154 

158 
162 

164 
166 
164 
165 


168 


SYNOPSIS   OF   COURSE 


XVll 


March  —  Plants  : 

PAGE 

Buds 

.     169 

Seed  Food-supply  (continued) 

.     176 

Animals  : 

f  Blackbird  .... 
^Bluebird     .... 

.     189 

.     187 

Earthworm 

.     184 

Excursions 

.     191 

Migration  .... 

.     190 

^-Hobin         .... 

.     187 

Stones  : 

Clay 

.     178 

Feldspar     .... 

....     180 

Mica 

.     178 

Pebbles      .... 

.     179 

Quartz        .... 

.     179 

Sand 

.     178 

Soil 

.     177 

April. 

Plants  : 

Ailanthus 222 

Arbutus 231 

Ash 224 

Beech 215 

Birches 203 

Bloodroot 234 

Buckeyes   .........  225 

Buds 199 

Cherry 172 

Chestnut 216 

Dogtooth  \'iolet 234 

Elms 201 

Excursions 226 

Hepatica 233 

Hickory ,         .  224 


XVIU 


SYNOPSIS  OF  COURSE 


April  —  Plants :  pack 

Horse-chestnut 225 

Linden 199 

Locusts 228 

Maples 218 

Oaks 211 

Poplars 206 

Quaker  Ladies 233 

Spring  Beauty    ........  230 

Sycamore  (Butlonwood) 216 

Violet 231 

Walnut 224 

Willows 209 

Animals : 

Bees 236 

Beetles 236 

Butterflies 236 

Moths         . 236 

Sto7ies : 

Gneiss 197 

Granite       .........  196 

Mica  Schist        ........  198 

May  and  June. 


Plants . 


Apple 

Buttercup  . 

Chickweed 

Clover 

Daisy 

Dandelion  . 

Ferns 

Fungi 

Jack-in-the-pulpit 

Lichens 

Mosses        .         , 


241 
245 
249 
246 
240 
238 
249 
251 
247 
251 
249 


SYNOPSIS  OF   COURSE  xix 

Mat  and  June  —  Plants :  page 

Sheep's  Sorrel 249 

Shepherd's  Purse 248 

Strawberry         ........  244 

Trees  {continued).    See  the  list  given  under  April. 

Stones : 

Limestones         ........  254 

Sandstones 255 

Slates  and  Shales 256 

Appendix        ....,..<,..  257 


NATURE    STUDY 


o>Kc 


INTRODUCTION 

The  course  of  Nature  Study  outlined  in  the  following 
pages  has  already  been  subjected  to  the  test  of  practical 
application  in  the  schoolroom,  with  excellent  results. 
I  believe  that  it  may  be  pursued  with  profit  to  teacher 
and  pupil  in  any  one  of  the  first  four  years  of  school  life, 
and  in  any  school  however  poorly  equipped. 

It  is  planned  chiefly  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  ordinary 
grade  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  a  city.  It  is  de- 
signed as  an  answer  to  two  questions  Avhich  she  will 
probably  ask  herself  when  invited  to  undertake  this 
Avork  —  questions  which  may  present  themselves  so  force- 
fully as  to  be  received  as  insuperable  objections  to  the 
further  consideration  of  the  matter  : 

"  Can  I  teach  this  subject  without  scientific  training  ?  " 

"  Where  can  I  gather  material  on  the  asphalt  pave- 
ments and  within  the  brick  walls  of  a  city  ?  "' 

The  course  here  presented  does  not  presuppose  special 
training  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  nor  special  facilities 
for  the  collection  of  material.  It  does,  however,  take  for 
granted  a  strong  desire  on  her  part  to  do  this  work,  a 
lively  belief  in  its  efticacy,  and  an  earnest  effort  to  be- 
come better  acquainted  with  the  familiar,  yet  to  most  of 
us  unknown  face  of  nature. 

B  1 


2  NATURE   STUDY 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  disparage  the  value  to  the 
teacher  of  special  training  in  science.  Nevertheless  it 
may  be  safely  stated  that  the  courses  generally  pursued 
in  college  and  university  do  not  necessarily  equip  the 
student  for  practical,  every-day  work  with  little  children. 
They  need  to  be  supplemented  by  actual  experience. 

The  plan  herein  embodied  has  grown  out  of  scientific 
training  and  experience  in  teaching  little  children,  and  I, 
therefore,  present  it  with  some  hope  that  it  may  be  a 
helpful  volume  to  those  teachers  who  desire  to  pursue  a 
course  in  Nature  Study. 

Recognizing  that  the  search  for  facts  in  the  ordinary 
text-books  on  science  is  a  labor  requiring  more  time  than 
the  teacher  usually  has  at  her  disposal,  and,  also,  perhaps, 
greater  familiarity  with  technical  terms  than  she  might 
be  expected  to  possess,  I  have  given  in  the  paragraphs 
marked  "Facts"  such  necessary  knowledge  on  the  sub- 
jects therein  treated  as  she  should  have.  These  facts 
are  accurate  and  based  upon  the  latest  and  most  eminent 
authority. 

For  more  extended  information  on  the  subjects  of  the 
lessons,  the  following  books  are  suggested : 

Animals  : 

Birdcraft,       j  ^^^^j  Osgood  Wright. 

Citizen  Bird,  i 

Birds  Through  an  Opera  Glass,  Merriam. 

Winners  in  Life's  Kace,  |  ^rahella  Buckley. 

Life  and  Her  CliiUlren,    > 

First  Lessons  in  Zoology,  Morse. 

Needham's  Zoology. 

Frail  Children  of  the  Air,  Scudder, 

Insects,  Hyatt  and  Arms. 


INTRODUCTION  6 

Manual  for  Insects,  Comstock. 
The  Aquarium,  Mark  Samuels. 

Directions  for  Collecting  Insects  (free),  Smithsonian  Institute, 
Washington,  D.C. 

Plants  : 

Plants  and  Their  Children,  Mrs.  Dana. 
Bud  and  Leaf,  1 

Flower  and  Fruit,  I  . 

Botanical  Reader,  Part  I. , 


Botanical  Reader,  Part  II., 

Story  of  the  Trees,  Mrs.  Dyer. 

Familiar  Trees  and  Their  Leaves,  Schuyler  Matthews. 

Earth  Sciences  : 

Earth  and  Its  Story,  Heilprin. 

Thirty -six  Observation  Lessons  on  Common  Minerals,  Clapp. 
First  Lesson  on  Minerals,  Mrs.  Richards. 
Common  Rocks  and  Minerals,  Crosby. 
Ocean  of  Air,  1 

Father  Aldur,  i  Alice  Gibcrne. 

Earth  and  Its  Foundation,  J 

Instruction  to  Voluntary  Observers    (free),  Weather  Bureau, 
Washington,  D.C. 

Miscellaneous  : 

Murch^'s  Science  Readers. 

Nature  Study,  Jackman. 

Fairy  Land  of  Science,  Arabella  Buckley. 

Tommy  Anne,  Mabel  O.sgood  Wright. 

Perhaps  nine  out  of  ten  teachers,  if  asked  what  is  the 
advantage  of  Nature  Study  to  the  oliild,  wouhl  say  that  it 
consists  in  the  training  of  the  observation  through  the 
senses.  These  are  the  days  when  "  Sense-Training  "'  is 
the  Shibboleth ;  and,  perhaps,  so-called  "  Nature  Study  " 
has  contributed  more  than  any  other  one  thing  to  raise 
on  high  this  new  god ;  or,  it  may  be,  that  Nature  Study 
exists  in  our  schools  because  the  new  god  rules. 


4  NATURE    STUDY 

That  the  study  of  nature  rests  primarily  on  observa- 
tion, and  that  this  rests  on  accurate  sense  perception,  no 
one  will  deny;  but  that  this  is  the  end  is  a  supposition 
fatal  to  successfully  extracting  from  such  a  course  results 
more  precious  to  the  child,  —  the  cultivation  of  the  judg- 
ment and  the  imagination.  Indeed,  if  a  choice  must  be 
made,  let  us  cultivate  these  rather  than  the  senses,  for, 
without  imagination,  the  acutest  seeing,  hearing,  touch, 
taste,  or  smell  will  not  help  us  to  an  intelligent  observation. 

Those,  therefore,  who  see  only  its  more  limited  possi- 
bilities will  teach  the  letter,  —  teach  it  well,  perhaps,  —  but 
will  probably  miss  altogether  the  spirit.  Facts  are  neces- 
sary things.  A  teacher  cannot  have  too  many  of  them. 
In  truth,  the  larger  her  stock  of  facts,  the  better  will  be 
her  perspective ;  the  less  imperative  her  desire  to  make 
every  one  of  her  facts  a  part  of  the  mental  equipment  of 
the  child,  the  greater  the  chance  of  escape  for  the  eager 
mind  of  the  child  from  being  stultified  and  deadened. 
Let  her  therefore  gather  for  herself  her  facts,  and  then, 
guided  by  her  intelligence  and  her  heart,  direct  her  aim 
toward  putting  herself  and  the  child  in  loving  touch  with 
whatever  of  nature  there  is  about  them. 

In  short,  then,  the  teacher  of  science  should 
First :  Prepare  herself  thoroughly,  arranging  her  know- 
ledge from  the  perspective  of  the  child  ;  endeavoring  to 
foresee  and  to  answer  the  questions  which  he  will  prob- 
ably ask. 

In  this  work  she  will  doubtless  find  that  the  class 
know  more  than  she  gave  them  credit  for.  This  is  likely 
to  be  particularly  true  of  the  boys.  Why  this  is  so,  I  do 
not  know,  unless  they  investigate  nature  while  their  sis- 
ters are  trying  to  keep  their  dresses  spotless.     With  the 


INTRODUCTION  O 

children's  help,  therefore,  and  with  her  own  earnest 
efforts,  she  will  find  herself  in  possession  of  a  rich  store 
of  facts  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

In  her  own  stndy  she  must  take  advantage  of  Avhat 
others  have  learned  and  set  down  in  books.  The  method 
of  discovery  is  pedagogically  right  for  the  child,  but  the 
method  of  verification  is  the  shortest  and  safest  one  for 
the  teacher. 

Then  when  she  knows  her  material,  let  it  ask  her 
questions :  "  Why  am  I  prickly  ? "  says  the  Chestnut. 
''  Why  do  I  open  in  the  antumn  ?  "  "  Why  was  I  closed 
all  summer  ?  "  "  Why  have  some  of  my  nuts  two  flat 
sides  ?  "  "  Why  have  they  thick  and  shiny  coats  ? " 
"  Why  are  they  good  to  eat  ?  ' '  and  many  others.  Let 
her  think  out  the  ansAvers  to  them  all,  and  let  that 
question,  the  solving  of  which  ga'^  e  her  the  greatest  joy, 
be  the  one  to  Avhich  she  first  leads  the  children. 

Second:  Having  thus  prepared  herself,  then,  with  a 
cool  head  and  a  warm  heart,  let  her  leisureJy  guide  the 
child's  observation,  imagination,  and  reason  to  the  most 
important  truths  with  reference  to  the  subject  of  the  lesson. 

I  have  said,  ''Be  leisurely."  Let  her  remember  that 
the  object  is  to  lead  the  children  to  think.  Their  un- 
trained minds  cannot  do  this  in  an  atmosphere  of  im- 
patience, emphasis,  and  hurry.  She  should  not  have 
anxiety  to  cover  a  definite  ground.  Begin,  and  let  the 
lesson  shape  itself.  If  the  children  are  interested  and 
are  thinking,  the  teacher  has  succeeded,  even  if  she  has 
not  tanght  one  fact. 

Time  : 

This  course  presupposes  at  least  an  hour  and  a  half  a 
week,  preferably  divided  into  four  periods  for  third  and 


b  NATURE   STUDY 

fourth  year  pupils,  and  the  same  amount  of  time  divided 
into  periods  of  varying  length,  according  to  the  kind  of 
work,  the  time  of  day,  and  the  temper  of  the  children 
for  first  and  second  year  pupils. 

This  does  not  include  the  supplementary  reading, 
drawing,  and  language,  but  it  does  include  the  very  neces- 
sary short  excursions. 

Material  for  Study: 

Although  the  teacher  may  recognize  the  value  of  indi- 
vidual work,  she  may  sometimes  find  it  difficult  to  pro- 
cure material  in  sufficient  quantity  to  give  a  portion  of  it 
to  each  pupil  in  the  class.  In  such  cases,  I  have  found 
that  the  lack  is  in  a  measure  supplied  by  distributing 
to  the  class  hektograph  drawings  of  such  animals  and 
plants  as  could  not  be  gathered  in  abundance.  To  help 
other  teachers  to  do  the  same,  this  volume  has  been  illus- 
trated with  simple,  yet  rather  detailed  drawings  which 
admit  of  reproduction  in  this  way. 

As  a  proof  of  the  practicability  of  easily  gathering 
material  for  the  lessons  I  should  like  to  say  that,  of  the 
subjects  given  in  the  index  of  this  little  volume,  nearly 
all  the  trees,  all  of  the  stones  and  many  more,  many  of 
the  plants,  and  most  of  the  animals  were  found  within 
four  squares  of  a  well-built-up  portion  of  Philadelphia. 
There  may  not  be  the  same  variety  of  material  in  every 
city  street,  but  there  will  be,  probably,  enough  for  a 
year's  study,  if  the  will  to  fiud  it  and  the  desire  to 
use  it  exist.  As  for  the  phenomena  of  weather  —  the 
winds,  the  clouds,  rain,  snow,  hail,  dew,  their  various 
causes  and  effects  —  a  whole  world  of  interest  and  beauty 
—  what  locality  is  so  poor  as  not  to  be  rich  in  weather ! 

In  point  of  fact  its  economy  is  a  strong  argument  in 


INTRODUCTION  7 

favor  of  a  Nature  Course  in  the  loAver  schools.  Heaven 
and  earth  supply  the  material  independent  of  School 
Board  appropriations.  Those  who  assert  that  such  a 
course  is  possible  only  with  a  large  laboratory  and  gen- 
erous appropriations,  speak  either  with  prejudice  or  with- 
out thought. 

Excursions  : 

Last  year  I  made  not  less  than  eighty  short  excursions, 
each  time  with  classes  of  about  thirty-five.  They  were 
children  of  from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  With- 
out their  hats,  taking  with  them  note-books,  pencils,  and 
knives,  they  passed  with  me  to  the  street.  The  passers-by 
stopped  to  gaze  at  us,  some  with  expressions  of  amuse- 
ment, others  of  astonishment ;  approval  sometimes,  quite 
frequently  the  reverse.  But  I  never  once  saw  on  the 
part  of  the  children  a  consciousness  of  the  mild  sen- 
sation that  they  were  creating.  They  went  for  a  definite 
purpose,  which  was  alwaj's  accomplished. 

There  was  but  one  exception  to  this  satisfactory  ex- 
perience, and  on  that  occasion  a  circus  parade  exercised 
rival  charms,  and  I  withdrew  in  its  favor. 

At  least  one  longer  excursion  into  the  real  country 
and  in  the  springtime  should  be  taken.  For  this  tliree 
things  are  necessary  for  the  teacher  : 

First :  Accurate  knowledge  of  every  inch  of  the  ground 
over  which  the  children  are  to  be  taken,  and  what  it  will 
yield  to  them  of  interest  and  information. 

Second :  Good  temper. 

Third:  A  shrill  whistle  to  call  the  children  together 
when  they  are  scattered  over  the  ground. 

For  the  children : 

A  covered  tin-pail  in  which  to  carry  their  treasures. 


8  NATURE   STUDY 

Butterfly  nets  and  a  lunch  add  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
occasion,  but  neither  is  an  absolute  necessity. 

Related  Work  : 

There  is  no  doubt  that  some  of  the  number  work  and 
much  of  the  reading,  literature,  and  language  should  be 
based  on  the  science. 

The  teacher,  if  left  to  herself  and  really  interested, 
would  do  this  unconsciously,  but  imfortunately  the  de- 
mands of  the  course  of  study  must  be  heeded,  and  the 
consciousness  of  this  keeps  most  of  us  from  much  experi- 
menting. 

This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  arithmetic. 
I  have  great  faith  in  Jackman's  ideas  and  suggestions 
for  number,  and  had  I  a  grade  in  my  entire  charge,  I 
should  certainly  follow  in  his  footsteps.  But  I  cannot 
speak  from  experience,  and  one's  own  belief  does  not  and 
ought  not  to  count,  except  to  one's  self  in  these  practical 
days. 

With  regard  to  literature,  reading,  and  language,  I  had 
unusual  opportunities  to  test  all  the  inviting  theories  on 
the  subject.  I  had  a  typewriter  and  a  mimeogi*aph  with 
which  to  make  such  reading  lessons  as  I  desired,  and  such 
work  in  language  as  seemed  to  jne  profitable. 

My  conclusions  are  these: 

First :  That  either  in  reading  or  in  language  a  restate- 
ment of  the  lessons  taught  is  stultifying  and  uninteresting. 

Second:  That  the  study  of  poems  or  prose  —  real  lit- 
erature—  on  the  object  studied,  or  on  a  related  subject, 
is  profitable. 

Third:  That  the  giving  of  additional  and  interesting 
information  as  silent  reading  is  a  valuable  exercise  from 
every  point  of  view. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

Fourth:  That  the  language  work  shoukl  be  largely 
oral,  and  the  attempt  made  not  merely  to  restate  the 
facts  observed  and  their  meaning,  but  to  lead  out  into 
further  thought  on  the  same  subject. 

The  written  language  consisted  of  records  in  which 
exactness,  brevity,  and  neatness  were  insisted  upon  ;  orig- 
inal notes ;  and,  whenever  a  subject  was  finished,  a  writ- 
ten resume,  usually  illustrated,  and  always  following  an 
oral  discussion. 

In  Color,  I  am  convinced  that  the  initial  work,  at 
least,  should  never  be  from  small  objects,  but  should  deal 
with  large  masses  in  obvious  perspective.  With  white 
chalk  and  blue  paper  all  the  different  clouds  may  be  rep- 
resented ;  with  the  ordinary  colored  crayons,  a  series  of 
pictures  accurately  representing  the  change  of  seasons  as 
shown,  even  in  cities,  by  the  progressive  changes  in  color, 
may  be  made  by  the  children.  After  this,  they  may 
more  safely  attempt  to  portray  smaller  objects,  such  as 
the  trees,  and  finally,  perhaps,  the  animals  and  flowers 
which  they  are  studying. 

AVith  the  older  children  I  have  found  color  work  with 
the  plants  and  animals  a  great  waste  of  time,  from  the 
science  standpoint,  at  any  rate.  They  see  and  learn  much 
more  when  they  attempt  to  make  an  accurate  drawing. 

With  the  little  children  the  reverse  is  true. 


CHAPTER   I 
SEPTEMBER 


Poems . 


In  September,  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 
September,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 
September,  Wordsworth. 
In  Time's  Swing,  Lucy  Larcom. 

September's  nature  work  must  deal  with  the  weather, 
with  the  autumn  plants,  and  with  insects. 

The  real  subject-matter  is  the  same  for  all  grades;  but 
the  amount  of  information  and  the  method  of  imparting 
it  must  differ  materially  with  the  age  of  the  children. 
Therefore,  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  the  work  on  the 
weather  will  be  separated  into  two  parts  —  suggestions 
for  the  first  and  second  years,  and  suggestions  for  the 
third  and  fourth  years.  It  is,  however,  taken  for  granted 
that  those  interested  in  the  last  two  years  will  read  over 
the  work  outlined  for  the  first  two. 

WEATHER 
Wind  and  Clouds. 
First  and  Second  Years : 

The  study  of  weather  in  the  elementary  schools  has 
the  advantage  of  having  the  material  supplied  without 
expenditure  of  school  funds ;  of  cultivating  the  observa- 
tion and   the  reason;  of   laying  a  good  foundation  for 

10 


SEPTEMBER  11 

geography;  aud,  by  means  of  daily  records,  of  establish- 
ing habits  of  accuracy  and  neatness. 

In  beginning  the  work  withichildren,  the  approach  to 
this  side  of  nature  should  be  made  through  the  myths,  of 
which  a  number  are  clearly  a  poetizing  of  natural  pro- 
cesses. The  stories  of  IVIercury,  child  of  Jupiter  and  of 
Maia,  in  whose  footsteps  grew  beautiful  flowers,  make 
a  most  happy  introduction  to  the  study  of  winds  and 
clouds,  and  are  at  the  same  time  an  excellent  basis  for 
work  in  literature  and  language. 

Tell  them  of  the  wind  god,  Mercury,  who  was  born  at 
the  peep  of  day,  and  who  grew  so  rapidly  that  at  noon 
he  sang  beautiful  songs,  accompanying  himself  on  an 
instrument  made  out  of  the  shell  of  a  tortoise  —  music 
such  as  we  all  can  hear  even  in  a  city  when  the  wind 
sets  the  leaves  in  motion.  In  the  evening  of  the  same 
day  he  stole  from  his  half-brother,  Apollo,  the  sun  god, 
his  white  oxen,  which  were  then  grazing  on  the  tops  of 
mountains  near  l)y.  He  covered  their  hoofs  with  twigs 
and  drove  them  backwards  into  a  cave,  so  that  no  one 
might  find-  them.  But  Apollo,  discovering  who  had 
taken  them,  —  for  who  but  the  wind  could  drive  them 
away,  —  insisted  that  Mercury  should  go  with  him  to 
their  father  Jupiter.  Jupiter,  having  listened  to  Apollo's 
complaint,  turned  to  hear  the  defence  of  the  baby,  who, 
winking,  said  that  Apollo  was  a  bully  and  a  coward  to 
attack  a  poor  little  one-day-old  infant,  who  had  learned 
only  how  to  eat  and  sleep.  Jupiter  laughed  so  heartily 
that,  finally,  even  the  angry  Apollo  joined  in  his  father's 
mirth  at  the  pranks  of  the  boy,  aud  forga\'e  him.  Mer- 
cury then  presented  his  brother  with  his  newly  made 
tortoise-shell  lyre,  in  return  for  which  Apollo  gave  him  a 
beautiful  whip,  and  nux*le  him  herdsman  of  his  cattle. 


12 


NATUKE   STUDY 


Mercury  was  a  great  traveller,  and,  as  he  loved  Apollo's 
cows,  he  drove  them  constantly  before  him  in  the  great 

blue  meadow  which  surrounds 
the  whole  earth. 

This  myth  should  be  told  to 
them  as  a  story,  not  pausing,  as 
I  have  done  in  passing,  to  show 
its  origin  in  the  phenomena  of 
the  winds  and  clouds,  but  in- 
vesting it  with  all  the  possible 
charms  of  literature  and  art. 
(iiierber's  "Myths"  and  Gay- 
ley's  "  Classic  Myths  "  will  be 
found  invaluable  for  this  pur- 
pose. Gayley,  in  particular,  in 
his  "Commentaries"  in  the 
back  of  the  book  gives  valuable 
information  concerning  pictures 
and  poems.  "Nature  Myths 
and  Stories,"  by  Flora  J.  Cooke 
(15  cents),  may  be  helpful,  par- 
ticularly at  first,  in  enabling 
the  teacher  to  bridge  over  the 
chasm  which  separates  the 
myth,  as  told  for  the  adult  stu- 
dent in  the  various  text-books 
on  mythology,  from  the  com- 
prehension of  the  little  child. 
By  means  of  the  hektograph,  the  outlines,  at  least,  of 
Giovanni  di  Bologna's  Flying  Mercury,  the  Belvedere 
Mercury  of  the  Vatican,  the  Mercury  in  Repose  in 
Naples,  or  Praxiteles'  Mercury,  may  be  made  familiar 
to  the  children. 


SEPTEMBER  13 

Choose  for  tlieir  first  excursion  a  day  when  the  sky  is 
full  of  beautiful,  billowy,  cumulus  clouds.  Tell  them  that 
they  are  going  out  to  find  the  blue  meadow  and  Apollo's 
clouds.  Where  are  the  cows  going  ?  From  what  direc- 
tion does  Mercury  come  ?  Is  he  driving  them  quickly, 
or  moderately,  or  very  slowly  ?  What  else  is  going  in 
the  same  direction  (smoke,  leaves,  etc.)  ?  If  the  clouds 
were  not  here,  how  could  we  tell  from  what  place  Mer- 
cury was  running  ? 

There  can  be  no  valid  objection  to  letting  the  children 
use  the  terms  "  north,  south,  east,  west,  northeast,  south- 
east, northwest,  southwest,"  and  much  unnecessary  cir- 
cumlocution is  thus  avoided.  By  all  means,  use  some 
kind  of  a  compass  in  teaching  direction.  A  magnetized 
knitting  needle  run  through  a  cork  and  suspended  by  a 
silk  thread,  so  that  it  may  move  freely,  costs  practically 
nothing,  and  teaches  most  effectively  the  north,  from 
which  all  the  other  directions  may  then  be  taught. 

By  making  excursions  at  different  times  of  the  day, 
establish  these  facts : 

The  wind  may  often  change,  both  in  its  direction  and 
velocity  during  the  day.  It  is  usually  calm,  light,  or 
moderate  in  the  morning,  increasing  in  velocity  during 
the  day  until  it  becomes  strong  or  even  blows  a  gale. 

The  north  wind  and  east  wind  oftenest  bring  cold 
and  rain ;  while  the  south  and  west  winds  usually  are 
warm. 

The  clouds  in  the  early  morning  are  in  layers  round 
the  horizon  (stratus,  or  layer  clouds),  but  later,  on  pleasant 
days,  rise  toward  the  zenith,  lose  their  banded  character, 
and  look  like  great  packs  of  white  wool  (cumulus,  or 
wool-pack  clouds).  Sometimes  they  are  very  far  from 
us,   lighter,   more   feathery   (cirrus,   or  feather  clouds) ; 


14  NATURE   STUDY 

sometimes  they  are  gray,  low,  heavy,  and  give  us  rain 
(nimbus,  or  rain  clouds)  ;  and  oftenest  of  all,  instead  of 
being  simple  cumulus,  stratus,  nimbus,  or  cirrus,  they 
are  puzzling  combinations  of  two  kinds.  The  com- 
monest of  these  mixed  clouds  is  the  strato-cumulus,  and 
the  most  characteristic,  the  cirro-cumulus  or  mackerel 
sky. 

From  the  Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  D.C.,  may  be 
had,  for  the  asking,  pictures  of  the  various  clouds  cor- 
rectly named.  While  it  would  be  fatal  to  the  main 
object  of  nature  teaching  to  teach  these  forms  and  names 
dogmatically  to  the  children,  it  is  certainly  essential 
that  the  teacher  should  know  them,  and  that  she  should 
learn  them  by  daily  observation. 

Raixdrops  : 

The  study  of  the  various  forms  of  water,  such  as  rain, 
snow,  hail,  etc.,  has  been  purposely  delayed  until  Janu- 
ary ;  yet  the  good  teacher  will  not  fail  to  take  advantage 
of  a  rainstorm  to  call  attention  to  shape,  varying  size, 
and  impression  made  on  the  window  pane  and  on  the 
soil  by  the  falling  drops. 

LITERATURE 

Myths : 

Tell  the  story  of  ^olus,  in  whose  cave  Mercury  was 
born ;  of  his  children  and  their  work ;  of  Thor  and  his 
Hammer ;  of  Aurora's  Tears ;  of  Iris ;  of  the  Palace  of 
Alcinotls. 

Easy  Poems : 

What  the  Winds  Bring,  Stedman. 

Stop,  Stop,  Pretty  Water,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 


SEPTEMBER  15 


Eleanor  Smith's  Songs  for  Little  Children. 


North  Wind, 

Wind  Song, 

Rain  Coach, 

Rain  Song, 

A  ^Million  Little  Diamonds,  St.  Nicholas'  Songs. 

Northerly,  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life  is  Young. 

How  the  Winds  Blow,  ] 

:Merry  Rain,  [  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 

Little  Raindrops,  I 

Who  Likes  the  Rain,  J 

Most  excellent  language  lessons  might  be  given  on  the 
people  and  countries  to  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west  of  us. 

Tliinl  and  Fourth  Years: 

The  first  wind  lesson  in  September  should  be  given 
after  lessons  in  general  direction,  when  it  is  quite  certain 
that  all  of  the  children  know  which  way  is  north,  south, 
east,  west,  northeast,  southeast,  northwest,  and  south- 
west. The  children  should  be  taken  out  of  doors  to 
notice  the  direction  from  Avhich  the  wind  comes,  after 
they  have  been  properly  prepared  for  the  work  by  dis- 
cussing various  ways  by  which  this  may  be  determined, 
such  as  holding  up  the  handkerchief,  pieces  of  paper, 
watching  the  leaves,  clouds,  smoke,  flags,  etc.  It  must 
be  made  perfectly  clear  that  all  of  these  things  will  be 
blown  in  a  direction  exactly  opposed  to  that  from  which 
the  wind  comes.  If,  for  example,  the  smoke  is  going 
toward  the  southeast,  the  wind  is  from  the  north Avest. 

Three  excursions  to  observe  the  direction  of  the  wind 
will  not  be  too  many.  Prepare  for  these  and  all  other 
excursions  by  going  over  the  ground  first  yourself.  Do 
not  fail  to  make  most  prominent  the  point  at  issue,  but, 
at  the  same  time,  do  not  fail  to  help  them  to  observe  and 
admire  such  obvious  and  wonderful  things  as  the  clouds. 


16 


NATURE   STUDY 


4 


<z 


Direct  their  attention  to  the  weather  vanes  of  the 
neighborhood.  Let  them  discover  that  the  vane  always 
points  toward  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  comes. 
It  is  very  simple  with  a  knitting  needle,  cardboard,  and 
a  cubical  block  to  make  the  model  of  a 
weather  vane,  which  the  children  may, 
by  turns,  keep  in  accordance  with  facts. 
Teach  them  to  estimate  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  roughly  by  applying  such 
words  as  calm,  light,  moderate,  strong, 
gale. 

Let  the  children  keep  a  record  of 
the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind 
on  the  blackboard.  It  would  be  well  to  have  the  observa- 
tions made  at  stated  intervals  before  school,  at  noon,  and, 
perhaps,  just  at  the  close  of  school,  until  the  fact  of 
variation  is  established. 

The  clouds  should  be  observed  and  described  when- 
ever an  excursion  is  taken ;  but  it  will  be  easier  for  the 
teacher,  at  least,  if,  to  teach  the  names,  she  chooses  days 
when  the  clouds  are  comparatively  simple. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  a  blackboard  record  for 
the  wind : 


Wind  Becord  for  the  Month  of 18. 

Observations  made  at 


SEPTEMBER  17 


Rain; 


Take  advantage  of  a  rainstorm,  either  this  month  or 
in  October,  to  call  attention,  not  only  to  the  shape,  vary- 
ing size,  and  impression  made  on  the  window  pane  and 
on  the  soil  by  the  falling  drops,  but  also  of  the  effect  of 
the  rain  on  soil  in  general,  as  shown  by  its  action  in  the 
school  yard  and  street.  Let  the  children  observe  that, 
while  some  of  it  sinks  into  the  earth,  a  great  deal  of  it 
collects  together  in  pools,  which,  in  the  descent,  tear  out 
small  gullies,  then  join  other  streams,  until,  finally,  they 
rush  in  a  torrent  down  the  gutter  into  the  drain.  Collect 
some  of  this  water  and  allow  it  to  settle.  Observe  the 
amount  of  dirt  carried  along  by  this  small  stream.  Ob- 
serve, too,  that  the  finer  sediment  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  glass,  while  the  coarser  soil  settles  above  it. 

LITERATURE 

Miss  Rice's  ''  Course  in  the  Study  of  History  and  Lit- 
erature" (20  cents)  gives  many  valuable  suggestions  for 
language  and  literature  work,  and  is,  moreover,  well 
graded. 

In  addition  to  the  myths  and  poems  given  for  the  first 
two  years,  I  would  recommend  the  following : 

Stories  and  3Ii/ths  : 

Odysseus  and  the  Bag  of  Winds,  | 

Phseacian  Land,  j       j      j- 

iEneas  and  the  Winds,  ^Eneid. 

The  North  Wind  and  the  Sun,  ^sop. 

Four  Winds,  "»  ^^. 

„,  ,,,     „  .  ,         y  Hiawatha. 

Story  ot  the  ItainDow,  i 

A  Drop  of  Water,  Andersen. 

Challenge  of  Thor,  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 

c 


18  NATURE   STUDY 

Poems  : 

Four  Winds,  F.  D.  Sherman  (Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse). 

Night  Wind,  Eugene  Field. 

Wind,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  Child's  Garden  of  Verse. 

Extracts  from  the  West  Wind,  Evening  Wind,  Winds,  Bryant. 

Summer  Shower,  Emily  Dickinson. 

Rain,  Margaret  Deland. 

The  Brook,  Tennyson. 

To  a  Cloud,  Bryant. 

Extracts  from  Shelley's  Clouds. 

Rainy  Day,  Longfellow. 

PLANTS  AND   FLOWERS 

In  September,  should  be  studied  the  common  wild 
flowers. 

The  following  tentative  division  may  be  useful  to  some 
teachers,  but  in  general,  use  whatever  material  can  be 
most  easily  secured. 

First  Year:  Goldenrod,  Aster,  Wild  Carrot,  Butter 
and  Eggs. 

Second  Year:  Jamestown  Weed,  Sunflowers,  Black- 
eyed  Susans,  Asters. 

Third  Year:  Morning  Glories,  Pond  Lilies,  Iron  Weed, 
Thistle. 

Fourth  Year:  Nasturtium  {Tropoeolum),  Butter  and 
Eggs,  Chicory,  Goldenrod,  Wild  Carrot. 

The  plants  here  assigned  to  the  first  year  are,  from 
the  botanist's  standpoint,  the  most  diflicult  of  all,  but  to 
the  lover  and  teacher  of  nature  they  present  no  more 
obstacles  than  the  simpler  flowers. 

Beginning  with  the  second  year,  teach  the  names  of 
the  floral  parts  —  calyx  (sepals),  corolla  (petals),  stamens, 
pistil  —  and  their  uses.  ISTote  also  the  odor,  presence  of 
nectar,  and  its  meaning.     Lay  especial  emphasis  on  the 


SEPTEMBER 


19 


PETAL  OF  COhCLLA 


fact  that  the  flower  exists  solely  for  the  purpose  of  form- 
ing seed. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  these  lessons  de- 
generate into  mere  object  lessons. 

As  often  as  possi- 
ble have  the  plants 
growing  and  cared 
for  in  the  school- 
room, and  follow 
their  life  history  to 
the  production  of 
fruit  and  seed,  and 
the  germination  of 
the  same  in  the 
spring. 

In  all  grades  study  the  fern ;  the  curious  development 
of  the  leaves,  if  possible,  and  certainly  the  formation  of 
its  fruit,  without  the  intervention  of  flowers.  Teach  the 
children  to  watch  for  plants  which  do  not  flower,  and  for 
those  which  do.  They  will  thus  learn  the  necessity  for 
careful,  long-continued  observation,  since  they  will  cer- 
tainly make  many  mistakes  at  first. 

Jamestown  Weed  (Datura  Stramonium,  D.  Tatula). 
Thorn  apple,  Jimson  Weed. 

Facts : 

This  half  wild  plant  is  found  on  the  borders  of  culti- 
vated fields  and  in  rubbish  heaps.  It  is  not  a  native  of 
this  country,  but  of  Asia  and  tropical  America.  Because 
it  was  unkno^\Ti  here  until  the  advent  of  the  white  people, 
it  received  the  name  of  Jamestown,  or.  Jimson  Weed. 
Curiously  enough,  it  has  something  of  the  same  history 


20  NATURE   STUDY 

in  every  country  where  it  is  known,  following  in  the 
steps  of  civilization,  and  occupying  only  waste  ground. 

It  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  tobacco  and  the 
tomato ;  but,  while  these  by  cultivation  have  wholly,  or 
partly  lost  their  poisonous  character,  the  Jamestown 
Weed,  growing  as  it  will,  retains  it. 


Jamestown  Weed.    Bud,  flower,  and  fruit,  all  on  the  same  branch. 

It  is  an  annual,  of  spreading  habit  and  rank  odor, 
which  becomes  plainly  perceptible  on  crushing  the  curi- 
ously toothed  or  angled  leaves.  Children,  however,  are 
very  apt  to  like  the  smell  of  the  flowers,  and  they  always 
admire  their  morning  glory  like  beauty.  The  stems  of 
one  variety  are  purple,  and  of  the  other,  green.  There  is 
the  same  difference  in  the  coloring  of  the  flowers,  although 
this  seems  to  be  also  somewhat  dependent  on  the  amount 
of  heat  and  light  which  they  receive.     Those  which  are 


SEPTEMBEll 


21 


somewhat  shaded  are  always  paler  than  those  which  re- 
ceive the  full  warmth  of  the  sun. 

The  calyx  is  pale  green  and  fine  toothed ;  the  corolla, 
large,  funnel  form,  and  with  a  five-toothed  plaited  border ; 
the  pistil  has  a  two-lipped  stigma;  stamens,  five.  The 
odor  of  the  flowers  attracts  numerous  insects  who,  in 
entering  the  corolla  for  the  honey,  become  dusted  with 


Cross-section  of  flower  of  the  Jamestown  Weed.    Ripe  pod. 


the  very  abundant  pale  yellow  pollen  (flower  dust),  and 
then  carry  this  pollen  from  flower  to  flower,  in  going 
from  one  to  another  in  search  of  more  food.  This  is 
most  advantageous  for  the  plant,  because,  as  Darwin  has 
shown,  the  seeds  which  result  from  cross-fertilization, 
accomplished  by  the  action  of  the  pollen  of  one  flower 
on  the  ovules  in  the  seed  box  at  the  base  of  the  pistil  of 
another,  are  usually  heavier  and  more  numerous  than 


22  NATURE   STUDY 

those  which  are  formed  by  the  pollen  acting'  on  the 
ovules  of  the  same  flower. 

The  pod,  because  of  an  imperfect  false  partition,  ap- 
pears to  be  four-celled,  except  near  the  top.  It  is  green 
and  prickly  until  the  rather  large  flat  black  seeds  are 
ripe.  Its  color  renders  it  inconspicuous,  and  the  prickles 
protect  it,  even  should  it  be  discovered.  But  when  the 
seeds  are  ripe,  the  pod  becomes  yellow  and  splits  open, 
thus  permitting  the  seeds  to  escape. 

Buds,  flowers,  unripe  and  ripe  pods  are  often  found  on 
the  same  plant  at  one  time. 

Metliod  : 

On  a  sunny  day  take  the  children,  if  possible,  to  a 
waste  lot  near  by.  Direct  their  attention  to  the  bees. 
Allow  each  to  gather  a  flower  and  a  bud. 

Are  there  any  other  visitors  to  the  flower  ?  Why  do 
they  go  there  ?  Why  do  you  think  so  ?  Pull  off  the 
white  part ;  touch  with  the  tongue  the  lower  part  of  it. 
Put  the  tongue  in  the  little  green  cup.  What  do  you 
taste  ?  What  does  the  bee  do  with  the  honey  ?  Do  all 
flowers  have  honey  ?  How  does  the  bee  know  that  there 
is  honey  in  this  flower  ?  Can  the  bee  see  ?  Can  it  smell  ? 
Does  the  flower  like  its  visitor  ?     Why  ? 

Even  very  young  children  can  give  intelligent  and 
thoughtful  answers  to  all  these  questions,  except,  per- 
haps, the  last  two.  These  it  might  be  better  to  answer 
yourself  by  telling  them  that  the  bee  is  a  great  help  to 
the  flowers,  since  it  carries  the  dust,  which  makes  the 
seeds,  from  one  flower  to  another.  Or  it  might  be  better 
to  leave  these  questions  unanswered  until  the  children 
have  seen  that  the  great  mission  of  the  flower  is  to  pro- 
duce seed. 


SEPTEMBER  23 

After  this  preliminary  out-of-door  lesson,  plants  may 
be  brought  into  the  schoolroom,  and  the  subsequent  his- 
tory there  studied. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  indicate  the  various  points 
to  Avhich  the  observation  of  the  children  should  be 
directed.  Many  teachers  err  on  the  side  of  too  much 
miuutise,  and  make  these  lessons  perilously  near  the  old- 
time  object  lesson. 

Function  should  precede  form.  It  is  important  for 
the  children  to  realize  that  the  roots  anchor  and  feed  the 
plant;  that  the  stem  is  strong  enough  to  hold  the  leaves 
and  flowers,  and  is  turgid  Avith  food ;  that  the  leaves  are 
arranged  so  that  the  greatest  surface  is  exposed,  and 
that  no  one  leaf  laps  over  the  other ;  that  the  flower  by 
its  odor,  size,  and  color  attracts  insects  which  carr}^  the 
pollen  to  other  flowers,  thus  fertilizing  the  ovules  ;  that 
when  this  is  done  the  flowers  fade,  so  that  the  whole 
energy  of  the  plant  may  be  turned  into  the  manufacture 
of  seeds,  which,  while  unripe,  are  protected  by  an  incon- 
spicuous green  and  prickly  pod  which  opens  later,  how- 
ever, to  distribute  them.  It  is  not  important  at  all  to 
know  that  the  root  is  fibrous,  nor  even  that  the  ovate 
leaves  are  palmately  veined,  with  a  sinuate  tooth  margin, 
and  are  alternately  arranged  on  the  stem. 

As  a  general  rule,  systematic  observation  defeats  its 
object  and  stultifies  the  perceptions  of  the  children. 
Therefore  the  main  point  should  be  to  keep  the  life  side 
before  them ;  to  make  them  knoAv  by  loving,  and  love 
because  they  are  thinking. 

For  this  object  the  following  additional  questions  may 
be  useful :  What  is  inside  the  pod  ?  Are  seeds  good  to 
eat  ?  Would  any  hungrj'  animals  be  likely  to  see  these 
pods?     Why  not?     If  they  did, would  they  enjoy  eating 


24  NATURE   STUDY 

them  ?  Why  not  ?  Why  else  is  the  pod  closed  ?  Why 
does  it  open  later  ? 

Now  would  be  an  excellent  time  to  tell  of  its  history 
and  the  meaning  of  its  name. 

Obviously,  even  the  superficial  study  of  this  plant 
would  require  one  excursion,  and  not  less  than  four  addi- 
tional lessons. 

The  plant,  flowers,  leaves,  and  pods  should  furnish  the 
material  for  the  drawing  lessons  immediately  succeeding. 
For  reading  lessons  with  second  year  children,  valuable 
suggestions  will  be  found  in  Florence  Bass'  "Nature 
Stories  for  Young  Readers."  For  third  and  fourth  year 
children,  the  history  of  the  settlement  of  Jamestown, 
some  account  of  the  introduction  of  other  plants  by  im- 
migration, or  the  story  of  Cats  and  Clover,  as  related  by 
Darwin  (Swinton's  Nature  Reader),  would  be  more  prof- 
itable than  a  resume  of  their  observation  on  the  plant. 
Aside  from  the  reproduction  of  these  lessons  by  drawing, 
my  own  experience  teaches  me  to  place  little  value  on 
written  work.  It  is  much  more  important  that  oppor- 
tunity should  be  given  to  all  to  talk  at  length  and  con- 
nectedly. More  time  must  be  given  to  oral  expression, 
if  the  children  are  ever  to  write  naturally  and  well. 

Thistle  (Cnicus  lanceolatus). 

Facts  : 

This  plant,  too,  is  not  native,  but  has  been  introduced 
from  Europe.  It  is  fond  of  rich  soil,  although  it  flour- 
ishes in  dry  fields,  because  of  its  thick  leaves.  It  has  a 
round,  brown,  tough  taproot,  with  a  stiff  upright  hollow 
grooved  stem,  which  bears  the  prickly  winged  leaves, 
woolly  underneath,  and  the  large  terminal  heads  of  pur- 


SEPTEMBER  25 

pie  flowers.  These  heads  are  surrounded  with  an  invo- 
lucre, every  scale  of  which  is  tipped  with  a  prickle.  The 
flowers  themselves  are  tubular  with  both  stamens  and  a 
pistil,  and  inserted  on  a  receptacle  which  is  thickly 
clothed  with  soft  hairs.  They  are  fragrant  and  contain 
nectar.      The    fruits     have  \  k  I  I  r 

abundant    pappus,    "thistle      .v^^^^'V^H  *^''''-A// 
down,"  by  reason  of  which  >3V  ''^         .'i- "•  ,.J  '  jV 
the    thistle    is    widely    dis-  ^'  ^i  ^"ff  ''"''  JklX':'^'''''''^ 

J  ^jJ^-s^-T^  ^  /  /  ^i:S^^rr^-   STAMENS 

tributed.     Indeed,  the  only       "^J^^^''^" '^■||i<,v"^'~-^°''°'-'^ 

way  to  get  rid  of  it  is  to  cut  ,,,,^,.-^l  L    Wr 
it  down  before  it  flowers,  and  "^e"^',;''"^^^^  |"||U,  M^'^^^'  °'  "'°'" 
even  this   will  be  of  small  "^^--^      -^P 

use  unless  every  one  in  the  i  ' 

neighborhood  does  the  same  "^^'^  °^  '^'^"^  ^''^  ''"'*  ^"'^  f'°^«''- 
thing.  The  thistle  belongs  to  the  order  of  Composites,  so 
called,  because  the  flower  heads  are  composed  of  many 
flowers.  To  this  same  order  belong  most  of  the  common 
fall  flowers,  such  as  the  goldenrod,  aster,  iron  Aveed,  bone- 
set,  snake  root,  thoroughwort,  cone  flower,  sunflower,  yar- 
row, tansy,  burdock,  chicory,  as  well  as  the  everlasting, 
the  daisy  and  the  dandelion,  which  bloom  in  the  spring. 
As  the  flowers  of  this  family  are  seldom  self-fertilized, 
the  advantage  of  the  closely  crowded  conspicuous  head 
is  evident.  Doubtless  to  protect  the  nectar  from  being 
diluted  by  the  dew  and  rain,  they  open  only  in  bright 
light. 

Metliod : 

Take  the  children  out  on  a  sunny  day  to  observe  the 
bees  and  to  collect  material,  if  this  be  possible.  Thistles 
are  not,  however,  found  abundantly  within  city  limits, 
and  it  may  be  necessary  for  you  to  collect  the  material 


26  NATURE    STUDY 

yourself.  One  plant  is  essential,  with  enough  flower 
heads  so  that  each  child  may  have  a  portion. 

Do  the  bees  visit  this  flower  ?  Why  do  you  think  so  ? 
What  is  the  little  purple  thing  with  a  long  white  tube 
which  you  hold  in  your  hand  ?  "Why  do  you  think  that 
it  is  a  flower  ?  What  other  plants  do  you  know  in  Avhich 
many  flowers  are  crowded  together  in  one  head  ?  Is  it  bet- 
ter for  the  flowers  to  live  in  this  way,  rather  than  singly  ? 
"Why  ?  Why  is  it  better  for  the  flowers  to  be  more  easily 
seen  ?  Why  is  it  good  for  the  bees  to  visit  it  ?  How  else 
can  the  bees  tell  that  the  thistle  has  honey  for  it  and  wants 
it  to  come  ?  What  good  are  the  prickly  scales  round 
the  flowers  ?  What  good  are  the  prickles  on  the  leaves  ? 
When  does  the  flower  go  to  sleep  ?  How  ?  ^Vhy  ?  Whj 
is  it  closed  on  rainy  days  ?  What  is  the  good  of  the 
thistle  down  to  the  young  fruits  ?  "Wliy  is  it  better  for  the 
young  seeds  to  sprout  far  away  from  the  mother  plant  ? 

These  lessons  on  the  thistle  should  be  followed  up  with 
drawings,  a  great  deal  of  oral,  and  a  limited  amount  of 
written  expression. 

There  are  several  stories  of  the' thistle  which  would  make 
excellent  language  or  reading  lessons,  such  as  Andersen's 
charming  tale  of  "  The  Thistle,"  and  the  "  Cousin  of  the 
Eose  "  in  Stories  from  Fairy  Land.  Mrs.  Dodge's  "  This- 
tle "  is  excellent.  '^How  West  Wind  Helped  Dandelion," 
in  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World  would  help  to 
drive  home  the  fact  of  the  distribution  of  seeds. 

The  following  salient  points  with  reference  to  the 
other  flowers  mentioned  may  be  of  use.  I  have  purposely 
omitted  much  that  any  one  might  see,  and  have  selected 
the  more  interesting  points,  and  sought  to  give  informa- 
tion not  readily  obtained  by  the  amateur.     It  is  taken 


SEPTEMBER 


27 


for  granted  that  no  one  ^ill  attempt  to  teach  all  the 
details  of  any  plant. 

The  Composites  : 

As  before  stated,  the  goldenrod,  aster,  sunflower, 
black-eyed  Susan  (cone  flower),  ironweed,  and  chicory  be- 
long to  the  Composites,  and  have  the  same  general  char- 


Chicory.    Cross-section  of  head  showing  separate  flower. 


acteristics  as  the  thistle.  The  ironweed,  like  the  thistle, 
has  tubular  flowers  only.  Chicory,  like  the  dandelion, 
has  only  strap-shaped  flowers.  All  of  the  others  have 
strap-shaped  (ligulate)  flowers  round  the  margin  and  tu- 
bular ones  in  the  centre.  To  the  former  is  given,  there- 
fore, the  name  ray  flowers,  while  the  latter  are  called 
disk  flowers  —  names  doubtless  derived  from  the  respec- 
tive resemblance  of  each  to  the  rays  and  disk  of  the  sun. 
Chicory  was  introduced  from  Europe  and  is  found  by 


28 


NATURE   STUDY 


dusty  roadsides.  It  is  an  excellent  flower  to  study  with 
children  who  have  already  mastered  the  floral  parts, 
because  no  other  common  composite,  except  the  sun- 
flower, shows  so  clearly  the  structure.  The  ovary  is 
large ;  above  it  are  the  small  chaffy  scales  which  make 

up  the  calyx;  the  cor- 
olla is,  of  course,  easily 
seen;  the  stamens  with 
the  heads  or  anthers 
united  are  exception- 
ally plain,  and  above 
them  rises  the  pistil 
with  its  stigma,  two- 
cleft  when  ripe. 

GoLDENROD  :  The 
flowers  of  the  golden- 
rod  are  much  too  small 
to  be  studied  botani- 
cally ;  but  the  plant 
itself  may  be  made 
interesting  by  compar- 
ing the  common  spe- 
cies, noting  particu- 
larly their  differences, 
which  are  obvious, 
though  the  ordinary 
observer  will,  with  difficulty,  believe  that  there  are  some 
forty -two  native  eastern  species,  of  which  at  least  a  dozen 
are  common.  It  would  be  a  profitable  lesson  to  collect 
sufficient  of  two  or  three  different  kinds  for  the  children 
to  compare  them,  giving  the  differences. 

Notice  particularly  the   stem,  which  may  be  rough, 
hairy,  or  smooth,  —  gray,  blue,  or  green,  —  unbranched, 


Goldenrods,  showing  some  of  their  different 
habits  of  growth.  1.  Early  Goldenrod. 
2.  S.  rugosa.  3.  Elm-leaved  Goldenrod 
(S.  ulmiflora).  4.  S.  lanceolata.  5,  S. 
canadensis.  6.  Blue-stemmed  Golden- 
rod (S.  caesia). 


SEPTEMBER 


29 


with  several  long  main  branches,  or  with  short  branches. 
The  leaves  are  various,  and,  in  one  species,  quite  fra- 
grant, shiny,  and  well  formed. 

Asters,  or  star  flowers,  are  almost  as  various  as  the 
goldenrod  and,  althougli  their  structure  is  much  more 
obvious  still  their  chief  value  in  this  grade  is  aesthetic 
and  literary. 

SuxFLOWER :  A  characteristic  held  in  common  by  all 
of  the  other  composites,  and  likewise  by  many  other 


ANTHERS...  r;|,\ 


CALYX  -   1 
DISK  FLOWEH--- 


Blue  Aster  (A-  cordifolius). 


.n7#J% 


Aster 


flowers  not  of  this  order,  is  that  of  "  sleeping,"  or  the 
change  in  position  of  the  parts  of  the  plants  with  refer- 
ence to  the  light.  This  peculiarity  is  conspicuous  in  the 
smiflower  probably  because  of  its  large  size,  and  has 
caused  this  flower  to  be  held  in  reverence  by  people 
of  past  ages.  The  Peruvians,  who,  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  Conquest  were  sun  Avorshippers,  decorated  the 
maidens  of  the  temple  with  crowns  of  golden  sunflowers, 
branches  of  which  were  carried  in  their  hands.  Sun- 
flowers were  and  are  still  used  in  the  decoration  of 
Christian  churches.     In  the  Cathedral  at  Eheims,  they 


30 


NATURE   STUDY 


form  the  aureoles  of  botli  the  Virgin  and  St.  John,  the 
flowers  turning  toward  the  figure  of  Christ  on  the  Cross 
as  toward  their  true  sun.  "The  sunflowers  not  only 
rejoice  at  the  sight  of  the  sun,  but  follow  with  loving 
fidelity  the  attraction  of  its  rays,  gazing  at  it  and  turning 
toward  it  from  its  rising  to  its  setting,"  wrote  St.  Francis 


Sweet  Clover.    Day  position, 

9  A.M. 


Sweet  Clover.    Sleep  posi- 
tion, 12.30  A.M. 


de    Sales,    an    observation    and   sentiment   repeated   by 
Moore  when  he  sang, 

"  The  sunflower  turns  on  her  god  when  he  sets 
The  same  look  which  she  turned  when  he  rose." 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  following  of  the  sun  is  much 
less  exact  than  the  poets  would  have  us  believe,  and  is 
undoubtedly,  as  in  other  flowers,  due  to  the  necessity  of 
protecting  the  nectar,  as  well  as  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion from  the  dangers  of  the  night,  chief  of  which  are 
cold  and  dew.  The  leaves  of  the  sunflower,  too,  like 
those  of  peas,  wistaria,  jewel  weed,  cabbage,  and  many 
others,  have  sleep  movements. 

These  movements  may  be  observed  to  a  limited  extent 


SEPTEMBER 


31 


by  making  use  of  rainy  days,  particularly  if  the  plants 
are  growing  in  the  school  yard. 

The  florets  of  the  sunflower  are  large  and,  therefore, 
excellent  for  strictly  botanical  study.  Two  sunflowers 
will  be  enough  for  a  whole  class,  one  to  be  kept  entire  to 
show  the  relationship  of  the  parts.  From  the  other,  both 
ray  and  disk  flowers  should  be  removed,  giving  one  of 
each  kind  to  each  child,  and  saving  the  now  chaffy  re- 
ceptacle surrounded  by  the 
green,  leaf-like  involucre  for 
the  class  as  a  whole. 

The  ray  flowers  have 
neither  stamens  nor  pistils. 
Their  only  reason  for  ex- 
istence is  to  make  the  head  coROLLPtf 
more  conspicuous.  The  disk  stamens--|| 
flowers,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  set  seed,  have  corolla,  five 
stamens,  and  a  pistil,  with 
a  two-cleft  stigma,  like  other 
tubular  flowers  of  this  order. 
The  calyx  consists  of  two  or 
more  thin  deciduous  scales,  and,  as  in  all  of  the  Compos- 
ites, of  the  enveloping  coat  of  the  ovary,  or  seed  box.  In 
the  younger  flowers,  in  which  the  pollen  is  ripe,  the  stigma 
has  not  yet  opened.  When  it  does  appear  above  the  en- 
circling stamen  heads  (anthers),  and  opens  out  its  inner 
stigmatic  surface,  which  the  pollen  must  touch  in  order  to 
insure  fertilization,  the  pollen  has  disappeared.  But  bees 
and  flies,  visiting  it  for  the  sake  of  its  honey,  then  bring 
to  it  pollen  from  other  flowrets. 

Black-eyed  Susax,  purple  cone  flower  or  yellow  daisy, 
as  it  is  variously  called,  is  a  western  flower  which  came  to 


DISK  FLOWER 


Sunflower. 


32 


NATURE    STUDY 


US  with  clover  seed  and  has  spread  into  our  fields.     The 

structure  of  its  flower  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  sun- 
flower. Like  many  other  plants,  its  root 
leaves  are  different  from  the  stem  leaves. 
The  Wild  Carrot,  very  commonly 
found  even  within  city  limits  in  waste 
lots,  is  sometimes  called  Bird's  Nest, 
because  the  flower  clusters  are  hollowed 
out  in  the  centre,  although,  when  quite 
in  bloom,  the  top  is  flat  or  convex,  in- 
stead of  concave.  This  plant  belongs  to 
the  same  family  as  parsley,  caraway, 
and  carrot.  One  of  the  distinguishing 
traits  of  the  family  is  the  flower  clus- 
ters, which  look  much  like  inverted  um- 
brellas. 

Not    less   common    is    Butter    axd 
Eggs,  or  Toadflax.     This  flower  will  be 

an  easy  riddle   for   children  who 

know   the   floral   parts   perfectly. 

The  five-parted  calyx  is   obvious 

enough,  but  the  tAvo-lipped,  irregu- 
lar   corolla   is    a    little   puzzling. 

The  honey  is  secreted  at  the  base 

of  the  ovary,  but  is  kept  in  the 

spur.     No  animals  can  get  at  it, 

but  those  with  long  tongues,  such 

as    the   bumble    bee.     Guided  by 

the  bright  orange  of  the  lower  lip, 

the  bee  presses  it  down  and  helps 

himself  to  the  nectar  within. 

The  structure  of  the  flower  of  the  ^NIorxixg  Glory  is 

very  evident.     Note  also  the  star,  and  the  fact,  rather 


Black-eyed  Susan, 
or  Purple  Cone 
Flower. 


Wild  Carrot. 


SEPTEMBER 


33 


unusual  among  flowers,  that  there 
are  red,  white,  and  blue  kinds, 
all  of  which  has  made  it  a  popu- 
lar candidate  for  the  national 
flower.  The  twining  of  the  stem 
is  also  worthy  of  note.  Like  most 
climbing  plants,  it  twines  against 
the  sun ;  that  is,  from  the  left  to 
the  right  hand  of  the  observer. 
The  hop  and  some  honeysuckles 
reverse  this  movement.  The  mo- 
tion is  quite  rapid,  and,  on  a  hot 
day,  only  about  two  hours  are  re- 
quired for  the  growing  tip  to 
travel  round  a  circle.  When  the 
free  end  is  a  foot  or  two  in  length, 
this  motion  can  actually  be  seen. 

The  Water  Lily,  like  most  of 
the  other  flowers  already  men- 
tioned, sleeps  at  night.  Perhaps 
the  most  interesting  thing  about 
it,  is  the  fact  that  there  is  no  ab- 
solute difference  between  sepals 
and  petals,  or  between  petals  and 
stamens.  The  outer  leaves,  it  is 
true,  are  green  and  shining  out- 
side, but  they  are  white  within, 
and  the  succeeding  leaves  are 
tinged  with  green.  As  we  travel 
still  farther  within,  they  become 
tipped  with  yellow,  finally  bear- 
ing anthers  (stamen  heads),  until 
at  last  we  reach  perfect  stamens. 


{^« 


/> 


Common  Toadflax  (Butter  and 
Eggs),  fruit  and  flower. 


34 


NATURE   STUDY 


This  illustrates  most  beautifully  the  probably  common 
origin  of  the  floral  parts,  and  suggests  the  following 
questions :  Why  are  the  calyx  leaves  usually  green  ? 
Why  are  the  petals  oftenest  brilliant  in  color  ?  How 
was  the  bag  or  anther  of  the  stamen  originally  formed  ? 
Why  does  the  pistil  leaf  of  most  flowers  swell  at  the 

base  ?  Obviously,  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  first  is  its 
inconspicuousness  which 
makes  it  a  better  cover 
or  protection,  whereas  the 
second,  for  a  contrary 
reason,  is  conspicuous, 
helping  to 'attract  to  the 
flower  animals  which  will 
transfer  the  contents  of 
the  stamen  box  (pollen)  to 
the  contents  of  the  seed 
box  (ovary)  of  another 
flower. 

The  Garden  Nastur- 
tium {Tropoeolum)  flowers 
abundantly.  It  is  better 
for  the  plants,  moreover, 
to  remove  the  flowers,  since  by  so  doing  the  formation 
of  seed  is  prevented  and,  in  consequence,  new  flowers  are 
put  forth. 

The  calyx  is  made  up  of  five  parts,  united  into  one,  while 
the  five  petals  are  separate.  There  are  eight  stamens, 
which  in  the  bud  are  bent  down.  Each  one  as  it  ripens 
rises  separately,  until  it  stands  directly  in  the  passage- 
way to  the  spur.  This  will  be  found,  on  biting  it  off,  to 
be  full  of  honey.     It  takes  about  three  days  for  all  of 


Garden  Nasturtium. 


septp:mber 


35 


the  stamens  to  rise,  ripen,  and  discharge  the  pollen. 
After  this  is  accomplished,  the  pistil  elongates,  and, 
spreading  out  its  three  branches,  stands  just  where  the 
stamens  stood,  so  that  an  insect  coming  for  the  abundant 
nectar  of  the  spur  could  not  fail  to  deposit  on  it  any 
pollen  with  which  he  may  have  been  decorated  in  visits 


Pistil 


Section  of   flower 

PISTIL 


Stamen 


Garden  Nasturtium.    Different  positions  assumed  by  stamens  and  pistils 
in  ripening. 

to  younger  flowers.  Their  brilliant  color  and  strong  odor 
draw  many  insects  to  them,  and  the  honey  guides,  or  dark 
lines  of  the  corolla  which  lead  to  the  spur,  perhaps  show 
them  the  way  to  the  treasure  within.  Notice  that  the  posi- 
tion of  the  flower  protects  it  from  rain  and  also  makes  of 
the  lower  lip  a  convenient  landing  place  for  the  insect. 

The  flowers  and  leaves  are  sometimes  used  for  salad, 
tasting  not  unlike  w^ater-cress.  The  fruit  makes  an  ex- 
cellent pickle. 


36 


NATURE   STUDY 


Ferns  : 

In  early  September,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  gather 

fern  plants  with  a  few  leaves  still  in  the  bud.      These 

leaves,  or  fronds  as  they  are  usually  called,  are  rolled. 
They  may  be  unrolled  for  a  short  dis- 
tance, but  the  inner  portions  are  as  yet 
undeveloped,  and  hence  well  protected. 
Many  kinds  are  also  covered  with  a 
brown  wool,  which  makes  an  additional 
protection  against  rain  and  changes  of 
temperature.  Both  these  points  are  bet- 
ter observed,  however,  in  the  spring. 

The  fern  has  no  flowers,  and  hence 
no  seed.  How  then  is  it  reproduced  ? 
By  means  of  spores,  which  are  borne 
usually  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaflets, 
but  sometimes  make 
up  the  whole  stalk. 

Often,  too,  they  make 

up  the   larger  part  of 

the  upper  leaflets,  while 

those  below  are    quite 

barren. 

In    the    vicinity    of 

Philadelphia,  the  small 

rock  fern,  the  common 

wood   fern   (Christmas 

fern,    as    it    is     often 

called  for  obvious  rea- 
sons),   and    the    large 

bracken  fern  have  thick 

leaves    Avhich    do    not 

quickly  fade.      Not  less  Rock,  wood,  and  Meadow  Fern. 


Fern,  showing  deve 
oping  leaves. 


SEPTEMBER 


37 


common  are  the  finer- 
leaved,  meadow  fern, 
tlie  sensitive  fern,  and 
the  cinnamon  fern. 

SOME  LITERATURE 
WITH  REFERENCETO 
SEPTEMBER  PLANTS 

Myths,  Legeiids,  cuid 
Stories  : 

Clytie  (The  Sunflower). 

Sunflower  and  K  ash- 
light,  Mr.s.  Ewing. 

Lotus  Eaters,  The  Odj's- 
sey  (A  Water  Lily). 

Golden  Rod  and  Aster, 
Marah  Pratt's  Fairy  Land 
of  Flowers. 

The  Closed  Gentian, 
Marah  Pratt's  Fairy  Laud 
of  Flowers. 


Sensitive  Fern.  I.  Vegetative 
leaf.  II.  Spore-bearing  leaf. 
III.   Magnified  fruit, 


Bracken  Fern,  or  Brake.  ".  Fruit  of  the 
Brake.  ''.  Fruit  of  the  Rock  Fern.  f.  Fruit 
of  Wood  and  Sensitive  Ferns. 

The  Thistle,  Andersen. 

The  Cousin  of  tlie  Rose,  Stones 
from  Fairy  Land. 

Training  and  Restraining,  Mrs. 
Gatty's  I'arables  from  Nature. 

East/  Poems: 

Little  Purple  Aster,  Fairy  Land  of 
Flowers. 

Thistles,  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life 
is  Young. 

More  Difficult  Poems : 
Golden  Rod,  Lucy  Larcom. 
Golden  Rod,  Elaine  Goodale. 


38 


NATURE   STUDY 


Cinnamon  Fern.  I.  Spore-bearing 
leaf.  II.  Vegetative  leaf.  111. 
Magnified  Fruit. 


Asters  and  Golden  Rod,  Helen 
Hunt  Jackson. 

September,  Helen  Hunt  Jack- 
son. 

Water  Lily,  Reynolds,  Fairy 
Land  of  Flowers. 

Petrified  Fern,  M.  L.  B.  Branch, 
Fairy  Land  of  Flowers. 

Fringed  Gentian,  Bryant. 

Extracts  from  the  Corn  Song, 
Whittier. 

Legend  of  Mondamiu  (Corn), 
Hiawatha. 

Blessing  of  the  Cornfields,  Hia- 
watha. 

Chicory,  Margaret  Deland. 

Ferns,  Tabb. 

Ferns,  Song  Echoes. 

Thistle,  Alice  Gary. 


ANIMALS 

In  September  there  is  abundance  of  insect  life  of  all 
kinds  and  in  all  stages.  For  their  study  in  the  school- 
room, a  home  for  larva?,  and,  if  possible,  another  for  the 
adult  forms,  are  needed. 

Glass  aquaria,  the  tops  covered  with  netting,  will  an- 
swer the  purpose.  For  caterpillars,  there  should  be  a 
layer  of  earth,  at  least  two  inches  deep,  kept  fairly 
moist,  and  plenty  of  fresh  leaves  each  day.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  keep  these  leaves  in  a  narrow-necked  bottle  of 
Avater.  Unless  the  opening  is  Avell  filled  with  the  stems. 
put  them  through  a  piece  of  cardboard  or  paper,  thus 
preventing  the  possibility  of  death  to  the  larvae  from 
drowning. 

The  adults,  if  butterflies  or  sphinx  moths,  need  food  in 


SEPTEMBER  39 

the  shape  of  a  diluted  syrup  of  sugar  aud  water.  This 
most  of  them  will  take  from  the  liuger.  If  they  are  not 
disposed  to  eat,  uncoil  the  tongue  gently  with  a  pin,  hold- 
ing the  insect  firmly  but  carefully  by  the  vertically 
appressed  wings,  and  letting  the  tip  of  the  tongue  come 
in  contact  with  the  syrup.  If  still  he  will  not  eat,  fresh 
fragrant  flowers  will,  perhaps,  tempt  him.  At  any  rate, 
if  he  does  not  partake  of  their  bounty,  he  cannot  be  very 
hungry. 

In  the  home  for  the  Imtterflies  should  be  placed  also 
twigs  and  branches.  Instead  of  glass  aquaria,  a  soap  box, 
in  each  corner  of  which  are  fastened  uprights  of  wood, 
round  and  above  which  is  nailed  either  wire  or  cotton 
netting,  may  be  used. 

Grasshoppers,  locusts,  crickets,  ground  beetles,  will 
flourish  in  caterpillar  cages.  They  need  abundance  of 
fresh  grass.  The  locusts  will  certainly  deposit  their  eggs 
in  the  soil.  The  ground  beetles  should  be  placed  under 
a  stone.  In  every  case,  the  secret  of  success  is  to  imitate 
nature. 

The  habits  of  these  animals,  what  and  how  they  eat, 
breathe,  and  move,  are  the  most  important  points  for 
study.  In  my  own  experience,  I  found  that  giving  the 
children  a  simple  definite  question  to  be  answered  the 
next  day  made  them  observe  intelligently  at  recess,  after 
school,  and  in  the  mornings.  The  teacher  must  remem- 
ber this  object,  and  with  a  word  and  real  interest  on  her 
own  part  stimulate  them.  The  following  questions  illus- 
trate the  point :  AVhat  does  the  locust  eat  ?  How  does 
he  jump  ?     Does  he  walk?     Can  he  close  his  eyes  ? 

After  this  preliminary  work,  it  is  desirable,  by  means 
of  the  hektograph,  to  make  drawings  for  each  child,  illus- 
trating the  animal  studied. 


40 


NATURE   STUDY 


The  Locust  (commonly  called  Grasshopper). 
Facts  : 

The  following  may  be  observed  by  the  children,  and 
must  be  seen  by  the  teacher,  if  she  is  to  do  intelligent 
work. 

In  color,  the  locust  imitates  its  surroundings,  and  this 
imitation,  by  making  it  difficult  to  discover  it,  protects 
it  from  its  enemies,  as  does  also  its  power  of  rapid  move- 


.'  EGG  PLACER 


BREATHING   HOLE 


Female  Locust. 

ment  and  its  thick  outside  covering.  Its  head  has  a  wide 
range  of  movement,  which  gives  to  the  insect  a  wide  range 
of  vision,  in  spite  of  its  motionless  eyes.  Besides  the 
large  compound  eye  on  each  side  of  the  head,  there  are 
three  small  eyes  in  the  middle  of  its  forehead.  The  an- 
tennae, or  feelers,  are  sense  organs.  They  move  freely 
in  any  direction,  and  convey  to  the  brain  of  the  animal 
information  of  the  outside  world,  perhaps,  by  touch  or  by 
smell.  The  mouth  parts  move  from  side  to  side,  while 
in  the  palps  is  sometimes  held  its  food. 


SEPTEMBER  41 

The  "  tobacco  "  is  parth-  digested  food  and  seems  to  be 
used  for  defensive  purposes. 

Back  of  the  head  is  the  chest,  to  each  of  whose  three 
parts  is  attached  a  pair  of  legs.  The  first  pair  points 
forward,  the  second  outward  and  backward,  and  the 
third,  which  is  more  than  double  the  length  of  either  of 
the  others,  points  upward  and  backward.  In  leaping, 
the  insect  uses  its  first  pair  of  legs  as  points  of  resistance, 
pushing  with  the  third  pair,  Avhich  then  straighten  out 
as  he  jumps  long  distances  into  the  air.  In  walking,  the 
legs  seem  to  be  used  somewhat  alternately. 

The  first  pair  of  wings,  wing  covers,  serve  to  protect 
the  delicate  gauzy  wings  folded  like  a  fan  beneath.  Both 
are  strengthened  by  veins. 

The  male  locust  sings  by  rubbing  his  legs  against  the 
wing  covers. 

The  abdomen  is  made  up  of  ten  segments,  which  gives 
much  freedom   of   motion.     The  nu- 
merous breathing    holes    are    along       ;  cercus 
each   side,  so    that   a   locust   would 
have  to  be  held,  not  with  the  head, 
but  with  the  body  in  the  Avater  in 

order  to  drown   it.  Abdomen,  Male  Locust. 

At  the  end  of  the  abdomen  of  the 
female  are  hard  brown  pincer-like  organs,  which  make  the 
hole  in  the  ground  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  These  eggs, 
usually  about  twenty-eight  in  number,  are  long,  yellow  in 
color,  and  very  commonly  found.  The  young  locusts  hatch 
out  in  the  early  summer,  looking  very  like  the  mother, 
except  that  they  have  no  wings.  About  July  they  shed 
the  outer  covering  and  come  out  larger  and  with  wing 
pads  developed.  In  succeeding  moults,  these  increase  in 
size,  until,  at  last,  in  the  fourth  moult,  the  wings  develop. 


42 


NATURE    STUDY 


111  the  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia,  the  wingless  and 
wing-pad  forms  are  abundant  in  June  and  the  early  part 
of  July. 

There  are  several  parasites,  internal  (worms)  and  ex- 
ternal (a  red  mite),  which  infest  the  locust,  but  their  most 
powerful  enemies  are  the  birds,  and  a  digger  wasp  which 
stings  them  and  leaves  them  helpless,  but  alive,  as  food 
for  its  yonng.  i^ 


WING  PAD 


Wingless  larva. 


Locusts. 


Nymph. 


Method  : 

These  animals  may  be  collected  in  large  quantities  by 
sweeping  the  grass  on  a  sunny  day  with  a  butterfly  net. 
This  net  may  be  bought  for  twenty-five  cents,  or  less,  or 
may  be  made.  A  piece  of  dowelling,  one-half  inch  in 
diameter  and  three  feet  long,  will  serve  for  a  handle, 
although  a  bamboo  handle  of  greater  diameter  would  be 
better.  An  excellent  rim  may  be  made  from  rattan,  about 
the  thickness  of  a  lead  pencil,  or  from  wire.  The  rattan 
should  be  bent  into  a  circle,  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  the 
two  free  ends  placed  outside  of  the  handle  and  bound  to  it 


SEPTEMBER 


48 


with  staples  or  by  winding  round  with  wire.     By  means 

of  carpet  thread,  a  net  of  mosquito  netting,  preferably 

green  or  brown,  a  foot  and  a  half 

long,  may  be  sewn  to  the  rim. 
When  caught,  the  locusts  should 

be  placed  in  a  glass  or  soap-box  vi- 
varium, in   the    bottom    of    which 

there  is  good  moist   earth.      The}' 

are   enormous    eaters,   and    should 

have   a  plentiful    supply  of  fresh 

grass   every   day.       Remove   those 

that   die,  and  mount  one  of  them 

with  the  wings  spread.      For  this 

purpose  a  "  setting  board  "  will  be 

useful.     This  may  be  made  by  nail- 
ing or  glueing  two  pieces  of   bev- 

elled-edged  board  or  cork  on  a  level  piece  of  board,  so 

that  there  is  a  half-inch  groove  between.  In  this  groove 
the  body  rests  while  the  wings  are 
stretched  and  kept  in  place  for  a  few 
days  with  narrow  strips  of  paper.  If 
the  insect  has  just  died,  there  will  be 
no  troul)le  in  doing  this,  but  if  he  has 
been  dead  a  day  or  so,  it  is  safer  to 
soften  the  wing  joints  by  putting  the 
locust  in  a  piece  of  paper  on  moist 
sand  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight 
hours. 

Let  those  children  who  will  bring 
a  tumbler  or,  better,  a  preserving  jar 

with  earth  in  the  bottom  and  netting  across  the  top,  have 

a  few  locusts  for  themselves. 

Let  the  children  answer  such  questions  as  these :  What 


Setting  board.     Swal- 
low-tail Butterfly. 


44 


NATURP]   STUDY 


is  the  name  of  these  insects  ?  ^Vhy  are  they  so  called  ? 
What  color  ?  What  other  colors  do  they  sometimes  have  ? 
Why  ?  Who  are  their  enemies  ?  How  can  they  make 
themselves  disagreeable  to  these  enemies  ?  How  can 
they  escape  them? 


Mr.  and  Mrs.  Katydid. 


Then  tell  them  to  watch  the  insects  to  find  ont  how 
they  walk,  how  they  jump,  how  the}^  fly. 

The  next  day  correct  and  supplement  their  observa- 
tions. 

Give  each  child  a  hektograph  drawing  that  he  may 
clearly  understand  the  beautiful  adaptation  of  the  legs 
and  wings  to  their  work.  Give  them  other  questions  to 
guide  them  in  their  observations  of  the  living  animals. 
What  do  they  eat  ?     How  do  they  eat  ?     Can  they  see  ? 


SEPTEMBER 


45 


How  do  they  see  ?     How  do  they  breathe  ?     How  do 
they  sing? 

The  life  history  may  be  taught  by  means  of  hektograph 
drawings,  or  it  may  be  left  until  late  spring;  at  which 
time  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  living 
material. 

To  the  same 
order  belong  the 
crickets  and  katy- 
dids. The  main 
difference  be- 
tween crickets 
and  locusts  is  in 
the  legs,  the 
sound-making  ap- 
paratus, and  the 
ovipositors.  The 
katydids  are 
green  in  color, 
live  in  trees,  and  have  longer  antennae  and  ovipositors. 

Because  the  children  may  bring  in  specimens  of  dragon 
flies  and  cicadas  (commonly  and  incorrectly  called  locusts), 
the  following  facts  are  given  with  reference  to  them. 

Dragox  Flies  : 

The  adult  dragon  fly  has  a  large  head  with  large, 
brilliant,  gemlike  eyes.  The  head  moves  very  freely  in 
every  direction,  as  indeed  it  must  to  see  and  catch  its 
food,  the  lively  mosquito. 

The  wings  are  nearly  equal  in  size  and  texture,  deli- 
cate, beautiful  in  color,  often  with  a  metallic  lustre. 

The  long  slender  abdomen  is  chiefly  used  in  steering. 


1.   Mr.  Cricket. 


2.    Mrs.  Cricket.      C    Egg  placer. 
Sounding  apparatus. 


46 


^'ATUEE   STUDY 


To  its  peculiar  appearance  is  doubtless  due  the  popular 
name  of  devil's  darning  needle,  and  the  popular  supersti- 
tion, that  the  chief  reason  for  its  existence  is  to  sew  up 
the  lips  and  ears  of  naughty  children. 

Because  of  the  nature  of  their  food,  they  are  always 
found  near  water,  where,  indeed,  the  young  dragon  flies  live 
an  active  existence  for  a  long  time  before  becoming  adults. 


Life  history  of  the  Dragon  Fly.   I.  Larva  with  the  mask  extended. 
ingofthe  pupal  skin.      HI.  Adult. 


II.  Moult- 


The  eggs,  dropped  into  the  water  by  the  mother,  hatch 
out  into  wingless  larvae  with  a  huge  lower  lip,  which, 
when  the  insect  is  at  rest,  folds  over  the  other  mouth 
parts.  It  is  capable  of  great  and  sudden  extension  and 
armed  with  a  pair  of  pincers.  The  larva  is  so  voracious 
that  it  is  often  called  the  water  tiger. 

When  about  to  change  to  the  adult  form,  the  nymph, 
which  is  very  like  the  larva  and  produced  from  it  by  moult- 
ing, climbs  OAit  of  the  water  with  the  aid  of  a  plant ;  the 


SEPTEMBER 


47 


skin  splits  along  the  back,  and  from  this  opening  the 
dragon  fly,  with  wet  and  crumpled  wings,  emerges.  In 
about  an  hour  these  are  spread  and  dry,  and  the  dragon 
fly  begins  its  comparatively  short,  terrestrial  career. 


■v-v., 


Nymph 


The  Cicada  or  Harvest  Fly. 


Cicada  (Harvest  Fly) : 

The  cicada  is  neither  a  fly  nor  a  locust,  but  a  bug. 
Bugs  are  always  easily  recognized  by  the  mouth  parts, 
which  form  a  long  slender  beak. 


48  NATUliE   STUDY 

The  male  cicada  is  easily  distiiiguisliecl  from  his  mate. 
He  has  a  pair  of  drums  on  the  under  side  of  his  abdo- 
men. With  these  he  sounds  his  loud  call  so  often  heard 
in  the  hot  days  of  August.  The  female  cicada  has  a  long 
sword,  with  which  she  punctures  holes  in  twigs  of  trees 
and  there  deposits  her  eggs.  The  larvae  hatch  out  in 
about  six  weeks,  drop  to  the  ground,  and  immediately 
begin  to  dig  their  way  downward,  using  for  this  purpose 
their  broad  shovel-like  fore  legs.  For  more  than  a  year 
and  a  half  they  remain  contentedly  in  the  earth,  their 
beak  piercing  the  roots  of  the  tree  and  sucking  its  juices. 
After  changing  to  a  so-called  pupa  state,  they  burrow 
their  way  upwards,  grasp  tightly  any  convenient  siipport, 
such  as  rails  of  fences  or  trunks  of  trees.  The  skin  of 
each  splits  along  the  back,  and  from  the  opening  emerges 
the  adult  form,  which,  after  spreading  and  drying  its 
wings,  flies  away,  again  to  repeat  the  history  of  its  race. 

One  well-known  species  spends  seventeen  years  under 
ground,  and  still  another,  thirteen. 

The  cast-off  nymph  skins  are  very  common,  and  often 
found  by  children. 

Beetles : 

The  commonest  beetles  are  ground  beetles,  usually 
found  in  abundance  under  stones.  They  may  be  so  kept 
in  the  schoolroom.  A  potato  plant,  infested  with  the 
brown  and  yellow  striped  potato  beetle,  often  erroneously 
called  a  bug,  may  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom,  and  is  sure 
to  show  not  only  the  adults,  but  the  eggs  and  grubs. 
The  last  will  bury  themselves  in  the  ground,  and  there 
live  a  quiescent  life  as  a  pupa  for  the  whole  winter,  if 
you  secure  a  last  crop.  During  the  summer,  however, 
the  change  from  egg  to  grub,  to  pupa,  to  the  adidt  beetle, 


SEPTEMBER 


49 


occupies  not  more  than  a  month.  Fireflies,  lady  bugs, 
and  the  borers  with  tlieir  long  antennee  are  also  very 
commonly  met  with. 

In  general,  tlie  beetles  have  small  heads  which  give 
them  a  wedge  shape,  well  adapted  for  boring  and  digging. 


t   -s     .'J  h  > 


Potato  Beetle. 


The  wing  covers  are  very  hard  and  horny,  usually  cover- 
ing the  entire  abdomen  and  meeting  in  a  straight  line  in 
the  middle  of  the  body.  The  antennae  are  sometimes 
thread-like,  but  there  is  also  a  great  variety  of  other 
shapes.  The  legs  are  nearly  equal  in  size.  The  develop- 
ment is  markedly  different  from  that  of  the  locust.    From 


50  NATURE   STUDY 

the  eggs  are  hatched  grubs,  —  caterpillar-like  animals, 
—  except  that  they  have  only  three  pairs  of 
legs.  They  are  voracious  eaters,  often  doing 
great  damage,  and  after  various  moults  hide 
themselves  in  the  ground  and  there  quietly 
A  common  Undergo  the  great  changes  which  make  of  them 
Lightning   ^-^^q  adult  auimals,  very  unlike  the  grubs. 

Most  of  the  other  statements  with  reference 
to  the  locust  hold  true  in  the  case  of  the  beetle. 

Moths  and  Butterflies  : 

The  caterpillars  of  moths  and  the  butterflies  are 
most  common  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  All  caterpillars 
should  be  placed  in  vivaria  with  moist  earth  and  plenty 
of  food.  This  food  is  the  leaves  of  the  plant  on  which 
they  were  found.  In  September,  caterpillars  are  usually 
full  grown,  and  speedily  dig  their  way  into  the  ground, 
there  to  spend  the  winter,  or  else  they  weave  for  them- 
selves a  cocoon,  which  protects  them  from  both  cold  and 
wet.  The  common  Isabella  moth  caterpillar,  reddish- 
brown  and  black,  remains  fairly  active  all  winter. 
Doubtless  its  thick, 
rather  long  hair  pro- 
tects  it   sufficiently. 

Hektograph  draw- 
ings of  whatever  cater- 
pillar is  brought  in 
should  be  made  and 
used  for  study  after 
the  children  have  been  led  to  observe  what  and  how  it 
eats,  how  it  moves,  how  it  breathes.  There  is  a  head 
without  compound  eyes  and  with  stout  jaws,  succeeded 
by  thirteen  body  segments,  on  the  first  three  of  which  are 


Caterpillar. 


SEPTEMBER 


51 


three  pairs  of  true  legs.  Further  back  are  four  pairs  of 
prop  legs,  and,  on  the  last  segment  of  all,  still  another  pair. 
The  commonest  butterfly  is  the  white  cabbage  butter- 
fly, which  is  frequently  seen  even  in  city  streets.  As  the 
name  indicates,  the  caterpillar  of  it  feeds  on  cabbages  and 


does  them  much  harm. 
In  default  of  anything 
better,  one  of  these  and 
a  hektograph  drawing  of 
the  same  for  each  child 
will  serve  to  show  the 
peculiarities  of  its  class. 

Like  all  butterflies,  ex- 
cept the  skippers,  it  has 
knobbed  feelers,  large 
compound  eyes,  and  a 
coiled  tongue  on  its  head, 
and  a  chest  to  which  three 
pairs  of  legs  and  two  pairs 
of  wings  are  attached. 
These  wings  are  covered  with  scales,  and  are  held  verti- 
cally when  the  insect  is  at  rest.  Usually,  therefore,  the 
under  side  is  less  conspicuously  colored  than  the  upper. 
Still,  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  dull-colored  butter- 
fly would  be  more  noticeable  than  a  brighter  one  when 
feeding  on  brilliant  flowers.  The  cabbage  butterfly, 
which  is  now  one  of  our  commonest,  was  not  known  in 
this  country  until  just  before  the  Civil  War ;  but  it  found 
here  conditions  so  favorable  for  its  development  that  it 
is  now  encountered  all  over  the  United  States. 


Mr.    Cabbage    Butterfly,   Mrs.  Cabbage 
Butterfly,  and  chrysalis. 


62  NATURE   STUDY 

Swallow-tail  butterflies,  the  Mourning  Cloak,  and  ilie 
Milkweed  or  Monarch,  as  it  is  often  called,  are  larger, 
more  beautiful,  and  more  interesting,  if  they  can  be  ob- 


Mourning  Cloak  Butterfly  on  Willow.    I.  Larvae.    II.  Chrysalis.    III.  Adult. 


taiued.  All  three  of  these  are  easily  tamed,  and  may  be 
kept  alive  for  some  time  if  fed  carefully  on  syrup.  The 
milkweed  butterfly  is  said  to  migrate  like  the  birds.  At 
any  rate,  large  flocks  of  them  are  frequently  found  rest- 
ing on  bushes  and  trees  in  the  early  fall.     The  males  are 


SEPTEMBER 


53 


easily  distinguished  from  the  females,  by  the  fact  that  they 
have  pockets  on  their  hind  wings,  in  which  are  kept  the 


Milkweed  or  Monarch  Butterfly.     I.  Caterpillar.     11.  Caterpillar  changing  to 
chrysalis.    III.  Chrysalis.     IV-  Adult. 

scent  scales,  by  means  of  which  they  lure  the  female, 
flying  before  her  and  saying,  "See  how  sweet  I  smell." 
The  tussock  moth  is  unhappily  commonly  found  in  all 


54 


NATURE   STUDY 


of  its  stages  in  many  kinds  of  trees,  to  which  it  does 
great  damage.  The  caterpillars,  in  their  livery  of  black, 
yellow,  and  red,  are  very  handsome.  They 
eat  voraciously  of  the  leaves  of  the  trees, 
build  a  cocoon  from  their  long  pencils  of 
hairs,  and  there  pupate,  i^rom  some  of 
these  cocoons  emerge  the  winged  males, 
who  fly  to  their  poor  wingless  stay-at- 
home  mates.  Finally,  the  females 
lay  their  eggs  in  a  mass  of 
white  foam,  and  from  these 


m  a  season. 


Tussock  Moth.   I.  Caterpillar.   II.  Cocoons.  III.  Wing 
less  adult  female.    IV.  Winged  adult  male. 

emerge  the  caterpillars,  who  grow 
larger  and  larger  by  dint  of  much 
eating,  throwing  off  their  old 
skin  after  growing  another,  imtil 
at  last  they  attain  their  full  size. 
Many  broods  are  hatched  out 
Hence  the  only  Avay  to  exterminate  them 


SEPTEMBER  55 

is  by  waging  against  them  a  relentless  war,  taking  par- 
ticular pains  to  destroy  finally  all  of  the  winter  eggs. 

Bees  : 

Certainly  these  should  be  studied  in  connection  with 
the  flowers,  among  which  the  children  have  found  them. 
It  is  impossible  to  keep  them  happily  in  the  schoolroom 
for  more  than  a  day  at  a  time.  An  observation  hive  in 
the  yard  would  give  to  each  child  an  opportunity'  to  see 
every  stage  in  the  most  interesting  life  of  the  honey 
bee.  Such  a  Mve  may  be  purchased  from  any  apiarist, 
and  would  cost  from  seven  to  ten  dollars.  AVith  this 
hive,  the  Avhole  history  of  the  bee  may  be  studied  in  the 
fall ;  without  it,  it  would  be  better  to  take  up  the  life  of 
the  hive  in  the  spring,  and  to  consider  only  the  worker 
bee  in  the  fall. 

As  a  matter  of  convenience,  however,  the  life  history 
of  both  the  humble  and  honey  bee  are  given  here : 

The  queen  is  the  fertile  female,  whose  chief  duty  it 
is  to  lay  tlie  eggs ;  the  drones  are  the  males ;  and  the 
workers,  females  who  lay  eggs  only  under  exceptional 
circumstances,  but  who  do  all  the  other  work  of  the  hive. 

The  humble  bees  are  social  in  their  habits.  The  whole 
colony  dies  off  on  the  approach  of  winter,  except  the 
impregnated  queens.  Each  of  these  hibernates,  and,  on 
the  first  approach  of  spring,  looks  for  a  home,  choosing 
sometimes  a  deserted  mole's  nest,  but  oftener  a  conven- 
ient place  in  the  ground,  where,  of  any  available  mate- 
rial,—  horse  hair,  grass,  moss,  —  she  constructs  a  nest, 
and,  in  a  mass  of  pollen  and  honey,  laj^s  her  first  eggs. 
These  hatch  out  into  workers.  The  empty  cocoons  serve 
as  storehouses.  Later,  are  hatched  workers  capable  of 
producing  drones,  then  drones,  and,  last  of  all,  the  queens. 


56 


^'ATUKE    STUDY 


In  the  spring,  a  hive  of  honey  bees  contains  only  a 
queen  and  comparatively  few  workers.  This  queen  be- 
gins again  the  great  business  of  her  life  of  laying  eggs. 

She  chooses  the  smaller 


Worker  (eil. 


Honeycomb,  showing'  the  different  cells 
and  larvae  in  various  stages  of  devel- 
opment. 


cells,  which  compress 
slightly  the  abdomen, 
so  that  the  eggs,  in 
passing  down,  come  in 
contact  with  the  sper- 
matic fluid  given  her 
by  the  drone  and  stored 
in  a  special  receptacle. 
This  fertilized  egg,  in 
four  days,  develops 
into  a  white,  footless 
larva,  which  floats  in 
the  food  left  in  the  cell, 
and  is  later  fed  by  the  nurses  with  a  mixture  of  pollen 
and  honey  specially  prepared  in  the  crop.  The  nurses 
seal  up  the  full-grown  larvse  after  six  days,  with  a  cap 
of  wax.  The  larva 
spins  a  cocoon  of  silk, 
and  gradually  develops 
into  the  adult  form. 
In  eleven  more  days, 
assisted  by  the  work- 
ers, she  gnaws  open 
her  prison,  acts  for  a 
week  or  so  as  a  nurse 
for  the  others,  and  then 
takes  upon  herself  the  labor  of  ventilating  the  hive, 
gathering  honey,  pollen,  and  propolis.  The  workers 
have  a  longer  tongue,  very  large  hind  legs  with  pollen 


Worker. 


SEPTEMBER 


57 


baskets,  and,  on  the  nnder  side  of  the  body,  six  pockets, 
from  which  may  be  excreted  flat  plates  of  wax.     They 


are  particularly  well  fed  and  hang  together  like  a  cur- 
tain, when  it  is  necessary  to  produce  this  substance.    As  it 
is  formed,  they  pass  it 
to  the  mouth  and  make 
of  it  a  small  pellet. 

Later,  the  queen  lays 
eggs  in  the  larger  cells. 
These  eggs  are  not  fer- 
tilized, and  hatch  out 
in  twenty-seven  days 
into  drones,  the  males, 
characterized  by  larger 
compound,  eyes  and  no  Queen. 

sting.      They    do    not 

work,  and  are  killed  off  in  times  of  famine,  and,  in  any 
event,  die  after  they  have  fertilized  a  queen. 

The  queens  are  hatched  from  larger  cells  in  sixteen 


58  NATURE    STUDY 

days.  They  have  been  abundantly  fed  on  royal  jelly, 
and  are  not  allowed  to  escape  until  the  sound  of  their 
voice  {"  piping  ")  makes  it  certain  that  they  are  mature. 
Meanwhile,  they  are  fed  through  a  hole.  Then  the  old 
queen  and  some  of  the  workers,  gorged  with  honey,  leave 
the  hive  for  a  new  home.  This  is  called  "  swarming."  If 
there  is  more  than  a  single  queen,  they  fight  for  suprem- 
acy, using  their  stings.  The  victor  takes  her  nuptial 
flight,  and  returns  to  lay  eggs  to  replenish  the  hive, 
often  at  the  rate  of  three  thousand  a  day.  Their  sense 
of  sight  and  of  smell  is  very  acute.  They  prefer  blue  to 
other  colors.  They  appear  not  to  hear  sounds  other  than 
their  own.  Wonderful  as  they  are,  however,  Lubbock 
says  that  bees  are  less  wise  than  ants. 

The  life  history  of  wasps,  hornets,  and  ants  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  bees.  Space  cannot  be  given  to  them  here, 
but  no  one  should  attempt  to  teach  them  without 
thorough  preparation. 

Flies  : 

The  house  fly  has  but  one  pair  of  wings,  although  close 
examination  shows  a  small  pair  of  winglets  that  at  first 
sight  appear  to  be  sejDarate,  although 
they  really  belong  to  the  wings  proper. 
These  wings  vibrate  very  rapidly,  hun- 
dreds of  times  a  second,  making  in  the 
air  the  figure  8.    With  them  move  also 
the  balancers,  short-knobbed  threads, 
occupying  the  place  of  a  second  pair 
of  wings,  and  supposed  to  be  modifi- 
cations of  them.     They  are  probably 
organs  of  hearing  or  breathing.     They  may  be  seen  more 
easily  by  examining  the  fly  from  the  under  side. 


SEPTEMBER  59 

The  feet  are  armed  with  two  claws,  between  which  is 
a  pad  covered  with  hairs,  which  secrete  a  kind  of  muci- 
lage, thus  enabling  the  fly  to  walk  with  ease  on  a  ceiling. 
With  its  claws  it  can  hold  to  rough  surfaces. 

The  under  lip  of  the  fly  makes  the  thick  tongue,  whose 
broad,  knoblike  end  can  divide  into  two  flat  parts  each 
with  a  rough  surface.  Of  these  we  are  unpleasantly  con- 
scious when,  on  hot  days,  he  endeavors  to  lick  up  the 
perspiration. 


IV 


Story  of  the  Mosquito.    I.  Wiggler.    II.  Pupa.     III.  Adult  escaping  from 
pupa  skin.     IV-  Adult. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  manure  and  hatch  into  maggots, 
footless,  worm-like  larvae,  which  after  a  while  wrap  them- 
selves up  in  a  brown  case,  from  which  they  emerge  adult 
flies.  This  happens  many  times  during  the  summer. 
AYhen  winter  approaches,  a  few,  by  hiding  in  protected 
places,  manage  to  survive  until  spring. 

Mosquitoes  : 

These  insects  belong  to  the  Fly  or  Two  Winged  Family 
(Diptera),  but  in  their  life  history  they  more  closely  re- 
semble the  dragon  fly. 


60  NATUKE    STUDY 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  boat-shaped  mass,  from  the 
under  side  of  which  the  larvae,  called  wigglers,  escape. 
They  lead  an  active  life,  moult  several  times,  becoming 
at  last  large-headed  pupse.  From  these  the  adults 
emerge,  using  the  cast-off  skins  as  a  boat,  until  the 
wings  are  dry  enough  for  them  to  fly  away.  Since  the 
least  motion  would  upset  the  boat,  we  never  have  mos- 
quitoes unless  there  is  somewhere  near  still  water. 

The  male  mosquito  is  short  lived  and  does  not  bite. 

Methods  : 

A  general  method  for  the  study  of  insects  has  already 
been  outlined  on  pp.  42-45,  under  the  head  of  Method, 
and  can  be  pursued  with  any  of  the  insects  described 
above. 

It  is  taken  for  granted  that  no  teacher  will  attempt  to 
study  half  the  inserts  mentioned,  even  in  the  two  fall 
months  in  which  they  are  abundant.  The  facts  about 
them  are  given  in  one  place  merely  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience, and  because  it  is  impossible  to  tell  what  mate- 
rial may  happen  to  come  to  the  individual  teacher. 

LITERATURE 

Myths,  Legends,  Stories: 

Aurora  and  Tithouus  (Grasshopper). 

Madame  Arachne  (Spider),  Celia  Tliaxter. 

Not  Lost  But  Gone  Before  (Dragon  Fly),  Mrs.  Gatty's  Parables 

from  Nature. 
Dragon  Fly  (and  other  aquatic  insects).  Water  Babies,  Kingsley. 
Bees'  Pockets,  Wiltse's  Kindergarten  Stories. 
King  Solomon  and  the  Bees,  told  in  verse  by  J.  G.  Saxe. 
King  Solomon  and  the  Ants,  told  in  verse  by  Whittier. 
The  Musician  and  the  Dancer,  Stories  from  Fairy  Land. 
Ant  and  the  Grasshopper,  ^sop. 


SEPTEMBER  61 

The  Beetle  that  Went  on  his  Travels,  Andersen. 
King  and  the  Locust,  Book  of  Tales. 
Butterfly,  Andersen. 

Waiting  (Cricket),  1     j^^_  p^^^^^^^ 

Law  of  Au  honty  (Bee,  Butterfly),    [      ^^.^^^  ^^^^^^_ 
A  Lesson  of  Faith,  J 

Goddess  of  the  Silk  Worm,  Eniilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's 
World. 

Tlie  readers  are  full  of  stories  of  the  metamorphosis 
of  animals. 

Easy  Poems  : 

Spider  and  the  Fly,  Mary  Howitt. 

Spider  and  the  Fly,  Alice  Caiy. 

The  Secret,  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life  is  Young. 

Grasshopper  Green,  Walker's  Songs  and  Games. 

To  a  Honey  Bee,  Alice  Gary. 

Seven  Times  One  (one  verse,  the  Bee),  Jean  Ingelow, 

The  Busy  Bee,  Isaac  Watts. 

Song  of  the  Bee,  Marian  Douglass, 

Butterfly, 

Butterfly's  Lesson, 

Lady  Bug, 

Maude  and  the  Cricket, 


Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 


More  Difficult  Poems: 

Ode  to  a  Grasshopper,  Leigh  Hunt. 

Grasshopper,  Tennyson. 

Extracts  from  Humble  Bee,  Emerson. 

To  a  Butterfly,  Wordsworth. 

Cricket,  Cowper. 

Grasshopper,  ~i  ^       .,-.-,  •    ^^ 

T     ,     „•   1       V  Loveioys  Nature  in  Verse. 

Lady  Bn-d,      /  •'  "' 

Hen  and  the  Honey  Bee,  J.  G.  Saxe. 


CHAPTER   11 
OCTOBER 


Easy  Poems : 


October  Party,  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 
Autumn  Song  [October],  E.  C.  Stedman. 
In  Time's  Swing,  Lucy  Larcom. 

More  Difficult  Poems : 

October's  Briglit  Blue  Weather,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

October,  Bryant. 

October,  Wordsworth. 

October,  Longfellow. 

Under  the  October  Maples,  Lowell. 

Easy  Autumn  Poems : 

The  Autumn  Winds  are   Crying,  Eleanor  Smith's   Songs  for 

Little  Children. 
The  Seasons,  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 
Faded  Leaves,  Alice  Cary. 

More  Difficult  Poems  : 

Autumn  Wood,  1 

Extract  from  Death  of  the  Flowers,     „ 

^T  ■        f   ^    <■  \  Bryant. 

Voice  of  Autumn, 

Extract  from  Song  of  the  Sower,        J 

Indian  Summer,  1 

Extract  from  Last  Week  in  Autumn,  !•  Whittier. 

St.  Martin's  Summer,  J 

62 


OCTOBER  63 

The  work  for  October  should  continue  the  study  of  the 
wind  and  clouds,  the  flowers  and  insects,  and  begin  the 
study  of  fruits,  and  of  the  Eng- 
lish Sparrow. 

WEATHER 

The  Sun. 

First  and  Second  Yeai's : 

Myths  : 

The  Wanderings  of  Latona. 

Apollo  and  the  Python. 

Apollo  and  Clytie. 

Hyacinthus. 

Phaethon. 

Iris. 

The  myths  named  above  give 
the  story  of  the  sun  god,  the 
giver  of  light  and  heat :  Light,  triumphant  over  Dark- 
ness, is  typified  in  Apollo's  struggle  with  the  Python. 
The  desire  of  plant  life  for  the  sun  is  told  in  the  story 
of  Clytie.  The  blooming  vegetation  of  spring  withering 
under  the  heat  of  summer  is  the  meaning  of  the  story  of 
Hyacinthus.  The  destructive  drought  is  the  consequence 
of  Phaethon's  careless  driving  of  his  father's  chariot ;  and 
the  storm  of  thunder,  lightning,  and  rain  is  the  thunder- 
bolt of  Jupiter  whici  destroys  the  daring  rider.  Finally, 
comes  the  beautiful  myth  of  Iris,  the  goddess  of  the 
rainbow. 

For  these  and  other  myths,  Guerber's  "Myths  and 
Legends,"  or  Gayley^s  "  Classic  Myths,"  should  be  con- 
sulted—  Cook's  "Nature  Myths"  gives  several  of  them 
arranged  for  children. 


Niobe. 


64 


NATURE   STUDY 


Facts : 

The  sun  is  more  than  a  million  times  larger  than  the 
earth,  and  more  than  ninety-one  million  miles  distant. 

We  move  around  the  sun,  which  sends  to  us  light  and 
heat  by  wave  motions.  The  light  and  heat  do  a  great 
deal  of  work  for  us.     Without  them  it  would  always  be 


Latona  and  her  children,  Apollo  and  Diana. 


bitterly  cold  and  intensely  dark.     No  rain  could  fall,  no 
rivers  flow,  and  neither  plants  nor  animals  exist. 

The  course  of  the  sun  varies.  It  rises  in  or  near  the 
east,  sets  in  or  near  the  west,  and  in  the  summer  journeys 
higher  in  the  sky  than  in  the  winter.  Hence  in  summer 
and  at  midday  the  vertical  rays  reach  us,  and  it  is  then 
hotter  than  in  the  winter,  or  in  the  morning  or  evening 
when,  the  rays  being  slanting,  the  heat  and  light  are  less 
intense  in  a  given  locality,  since  they  cover  a  larger  area. 


OCTOBER 


65 


Method : 

Tell  the  sun  myths  in  the  way  suggested  for  the  myths 
of  the  wind  and  clouds. 

Something  has  come  very  softly  into  the  room,  it  is 
bright   and   yellow   and  warm.      It   has   come   from   a 
great  distance.     Who 
can    tell    his    name? 
From  what   has   Mr. 
Sunbeam  come  ? 

What  day  is  named 
for  the  Sun  ?     Why  ? 

How  far  is  it  to  the 
Sun  ?  So  far  that,  if 
you  were  there  and 
could  speak  loud 
enough  for  me  to 
hear,  it  would  take 
two  weeks  for  the 
sound  of  your  voice 
to  reach  me ;  so  far 
that,  if  you  told  me 
to  come  to  you  on  the 
fastest  express  that 
exists  in  the  world,  it 
would  be  about  one 
hundred  and  seventy- 
five  years  before  I 
could  reach  you,  even  if  I  travelled  both  day  and  night. 

Show  in  the  same  way  how  small  the  earth  is  in  com- 
parison to  the  sun. 

Who  has  watched  the  light  coming  into  the  bedroom 
in  the  early  morning  ?  Does  it  come  at  the  same  time  ? 
At  the  same  place  ?     Why  is  it  first  gray,  then  lighter  ? 


Apollo  Belvedere. 


66 


NATURE   STUDY 


Yes,  that  is  the  way  that  it  seems,  but  really  we  are 
travelling  round  the  sun. 

Illustrate  this  by  causing  a  globe  Avith  a  small  portion 
of  it  covered  with  black  court  plaster  to  revolve  around 
a  lamp  until  at  last  the  plaster  catches  the  light. 

Recall  to  their  minds  the  similar  phenomena  familiar 
to  them  in  the  telegraph  poles,  fences,  houses,  which 
apparently  rush  by  us  as  we  gaze  out  of  the  windows  of 
a  moving  car. 


Phaethon  driving  Apollo's  car. 

"What  does  the  sun  give  us  ?  How  does  it  send  us 
light  and  heat  ?  Illustrate  by  throwing  a  pebble  in 
water,  by  shaking  the  room  or  desk,  by  the  voice. 
What  good  does  the  light  do?   heat? 

To  determine  the  apparent  course  of  the  sun  and  the 
consequent  daily  and  seasonal  variations  in  temperature 
mark  each  week  at  same  hour  the  distance  which  the  sun 
shines  into  the  room.  This  may  be  done  by  driving  a 
tack  in  the  floor.  During  December  the  sun  will  come 
farther  and  farther  into  the  room  until  the  twenty-second. 


OGTOBEE, 


67 


Iris. 


Then  for  a  few  days  it  will  be  stationary.  As  the  sim 
rises  higher  the  path  of  the  light  shortens. 

The  Light  of  Life,  Mrs.  Gatty  in  '•  Parables  of  Nature/"' 
shows  the  necessity  of  light  to  plants. 

Show  light  through  a  prism  again  and  again,  until  the 


68 


NATURE    STUDY 


18 

JANUARY 

97 

SUNDAY 

MONDAY 

TUESDAY 

WEDNESDAY 

THURSDAY 

FRIDAY 

SATURDAY 

dPcLEAR          ^FAIR      Q  CLOUDS        ^  RAIN      [o]  SNOW 

I  Yellow 


(Orange    ^  Light  Gray  HDai-k  Gray     H  o^Grty 

Sunshine  chart.    (See  p.  69.) 


children  can  pick  out  the  colors.  When  do  we  see  rain- 
bows in  the  sky  ?     Why  ? 

Show  the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  with  a  burning  glass, 
which  may  be  made  to  set  paper  afire. 

A  pretty  illustration  of  the  work  of  the  sun  in  photog- 
raphy may  be  made  by  putting  a  leaf  in  a  printing  frame 


OCTOBER  69 

on  blue  print  paper  in  the  sun.  By  the  end  of  the  lesson 
the  print  will  be  ready  to  wash  in  clear  water,  giving  a 
permanent  photograph  of  the  leaf. 

A  daily  chart  of  the  sunshine  may  be  kept  by  taking  a 
piece  of  Bristol  board,  printing  the  name  of  the  month 
above,  dividing  the  remaining  space  into  thirty-two 
squares,  and  by  pasting  in  the  ap2:)ropriate  square  each 
day  a  gummed  color  such  as  are  used  in  kindergartens. 
Jackman  suggests  light  yellow  for  sunny  days,  orange 
for  fair  weather,  light  gray  for  cloudy  days,  dark  gray 
for  rain,  and  the  same  with  a  Avhite  centre  for  snow. 

Of  course,  the  daily  observation  of  the  wind  and  clouds 
should  be  continued  with  frequent  excursions. 

LITERATURE 

The  myths  have  already  been  given. 
Sunshine  Stories,  Andersen. 

Easy  Poems: 

I  Had  a  Little  Shadow,  1  ^,  c.    ■  .  .     c. 

r^     J  -.r       ■       TVf         o       1--  Eleanor    Smith's   Songs   for 

Good  Morning,  Merry  Sunshine,  \  -^  •    ,    ^,  ., , 

„       ,  .  ^  -^  '  Little  Children. 

Sunshine,  I 

The  Sunbeams,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World. 

Water  Bloom  (Rainbow),  Celia  Thaxter. 

Sunbeams, 

Little  Sunbeam, 

The  Sunbeam, 

Four  Sunbeams, 

Sunshine, 

Good-night. 

If  I  were  a  Sunbeam,  Lucy  Larcom. 

Sunny  Days,  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life  is  Young. 

Sunbeams,  Mrs.  Heinans. 

A  Day  of  Sunshine,  Longfellow, 


Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 


70 


NATURE    STUDY 


WEATHER    RECORD,  No.  I 

Note.  —  Tliis  should  be  printed  on  paper  8  in.  x  12  in.,  to  give 
sufficient  space  for  children's  writing. 

jVame, 

Grade. 

School. 

Wind  Becord  for  the  Month  of 18 

Observations  made  at 


Date 

DlRKO- 

TION 

Velocity 

Date 

Direc- 
tion 

Velocity 

1 

1 

What  has  been  the  prevailing  wind  this  inonth?.^-.^^^,^ 


OCTOBER  71 

Third  and  Fourth  Years: 

Frequent  short  excursions  to  continue  the  teaching  of 
the  names  and  appearance  of  the  clouds,  and  to  verify 
their  daily  observations  on  the  wind,  should  be  taken. 

The  use  of  Weather  Record,  No.  I.  (see  opposite  page), 
should  begin  on  the  first  of  October.  Each  child  should 
record  her  observations,  without  discussion,  the  first  thing 
in  the  morning.  After  the  papers  have  been  collected,  then 
the  teacher,  or,  better,  one  of  the  children,  should  record 
the  facts  on  the  board.     Then  may  folloAV  the  discussion. 

It  will  be  sufficient  for  the  class  as  a  whole  to  make 
this  record  once  a  day,  but  the  blackboard  record  should 
be  made  up  of  at  least  two  observations,  perhaps  three, 
made  at  stated  times  during  the  day. 

Insist  upon  neatness  and  accuracy  in  this  work,  but  do 
not  allow  it  to  degenerate  into  mere  routine.  When  there 
are  obvious  relations  between  the  wind  and  the  weather, 
such  as  an  east  wind  bringing  rain,  a  cold  north  wind,  or 
a  warm  wind  from  the  soi;th,  point  them  oiit. 

Think  yourself,  and  make  the  cliildren  think. 

PLANTS 
In  addition  to  such  fruits  as  may  be  found  on  the  trees 
in  the  neighborhood,  all  grades  should  study,  from  the 
point  of  protection  and  distribution,  the  Chestnut,  the 
Apple,  either  Burdock  burrs  or  Stick-me-tight,  and  either 
the  Maple,  Ash,  or  Ailanthus. 

Chestnut  Burr. 
Facts : 

The  long  white  catkins  of  the  chestnut  appear  in  late 
June  and  early  July.  They  have  a  strong,  rather  disa- 
greeable, odor.     The  flowers  at  the  tip  contain  the  sta- 


72 


NATURE   STUDY 


Btaminate  flowers  —• 


FisUl&te  flowers- 


mens,  while  those  with  the  pistils,  if  found  in  the  catkin 
at  all,  are  at  its  base.  There  are  usually  three  pistillate 
flowers,  surrounded  by  green,  prickly  involucre.  After 
fertilization,  this  involucre  keeps  pace  with  the  growth 
of  the  two  or  three  fruits  within,  easily  protecting  them 
from  all  enemies  by  reason  of  the  prickles.     The  burrs 

themselves,  at  the  ends  of 
the  branches,  bright  yel- 
lowish green  in  color,  stand 
out  sharply  against  the 
dark-green  foliage.  In  the 
fall  of  the  year,  after  frosts, 
they  drop  to  the  ground, 
and  show  within  a  beauti- 
ful plush-like,  four-parted 
cup,  holding  from  one  to 
three  nuts,  each  bearing  at 
its  tip  a  withered  pistil. 
When  there  is  more  than  one  nut,  the  contiguous  sides 
are  flattened,  but  the  sides  toward  the  involucre  are,  of 
course,  convex. 

The  wind,  squirrels,  and  small  boys  help  to  distribute 
the  chestnuts,  which  would  otherwise  exterminate  each 
other,  since,  if  all  germinated  around  the  parent  tree, 
neither  soil  nor  space  would  be  sufficient  for  their  devel- 
opment. 

The  fruits,  or  nuts,  well  protected  from  cold  and  rain 
by  the  thick,  shiny,  brown  coat,  live  quietly  through  the 
winter,  not  beginning  to  sprout  until  the  coming  of  spring 
promises  them  a  warm  period  sufficiently  long  to  enable 
them  to  attain  a  hardy  growth  before  the  approach  of  a 
second  winter. 

In  the  nuts  are  often  found  worms,  whose  existence 


Chestnut.    Three  youngf  chestnuts 
in  the  burr.    Open  burr. 


OCTOBER  73 

within  is  something  of  a  puzzle ;  for,  while  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  find  the  hole  by  which  they  leave  the  chestnut, 
no  one  can  see  how  they  got  in.  The  chestnut-borer,  a 
beetle,  bores  a  tiny  hole  in  the  nut,  and  deposits  therein 
her  eggs.  These  eggs  hatch  out  into  footless  grubs  that 
eat  their  way  out  of  the  chestnut  by  means  of  strong 
jaws,  which  move  vertically,  instead  of 
sideways  like  those  of  other  insect 
larvae.  These  grubs  pupate  in  the 
ground,  emerging  thence  full-grown 
weevils,  which  repeat  the  egg-laying 
process  with  the  same  results. 

The  tree  itself  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  tallest  of  our  forest  trees  and  a  very 
rapid  grower.  Because  of  this,  while 
the  young  bark  is  remarkably  smooth, 
the   bark   of   the    trunk    is    hard    and       chestnut  weevii. 

Chestnut  Grub. 

rugged,  with  deep  clefts.     It  has  split 

repeatedly  in  order  to  accommodate  the  growth  within. 

The  leaves  are  long  and  very  lovely  in  texture  and 
in  color.  The  wood  makes  valuable  timber.  It  is  both 
durable  and  beautiful,  admitting  of  a  high  polish. 

It  makes  a  profitable  orchard  because  of  its  quick 
growth  and  the  demand  for  its  fruit.  From  it,  in  southern 
Europe,  is  made  a  flour  much  used  by  the  poorer  people. 

The  chestnut  tree  attains  a  great  age  and  size.  On 
top  of  Mount  ^Etna  is  a  famous  tree  called  the  Tree  of  a 
Himdred  Horsemen,  from  the  fact  that  it  once  sheltered 
a  hundred  cavaliers. 

Method : 

By  means  of  material  supplemented  with  blackboard 
drawings,  show  a  series  illustrating  the  story  of  the  de- 


74  NATURE   STUDY 

velopment  of  the  nuts,  beginning  with  the  three  little 
flowers  in  the  prickly  involucre,  then  the  closed  burrs, 
and  open  burrs  with  one,  two,  and  three  nuts. 

Look  at  the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the  burr.  AVhat 
difference  in  their  texture,  and  why  ?  When  is  the  burr 
closed  ?  Why  ?  AVhen  does  it  open  ?  Why  ?  Look  at 
this  burr  with  only  one  nut,  and  at  this  with  two.  What 
difference  in  the  shape  of  the  nut  ?  Why  ?  Look  at 
the  burr  with  three  nuts.  Which  is  different  from  the 
other  two  ?  Why  ?  Distribute  nuts.  Can  you  tell 
whether  your  nut  was  an  only  child,  or  whether  it  had 
one  or  two  brothers  ?     Why  ? 

If  we  plant  the  nut,  what  may  it  become  ?  What 
color  is  the  coat  ?  What  advantage  is  it  to  the  nut  to 
be  brown  ?  to  be  shiny  ?  to  be  thick  ?  Why  is  it  better 
for  the  nut  to  be  quiet  all  winter,  not  even  beginning  to 
grow  until  spring  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  large  scar  ?  What  was 
the  slender  tip  ?  What  is  inside  the  nut  ?  As  they  eat 
it,  tell  them  of  its  use  in  other  countries. 

Wormy  chestnuts,  hektograph  drawings  of  the  chestnut- 
borer  and  its  grub,  will  be  needed  for  a  second  lesson. 

How  many  find  holes  in  their  chestnuts  ?  Describe 
it.  Open  your  nuts.  Who  can  tell  what  made  the  hole  ? 
Why  do  you  think  so  ?  What  is  the  soft  powder  ?  How 
did  the  grub  get  in  the  chestnut  ?  How  will  he  get  out  ? 
Why  does  he  want  to  get  out  ?  What  becomes  of  him 
finally  ? 

It  may  be  desirable  to  give  the  children  some  idea  of 
the  tree  itself  and  its  economic  uses.  This  may  best  be 
done  by  taking  them  to  see  a  tree.  The  next  best  thing 
is  to  bring  them  leaves  and  branches. 

Show  them  the  wood  and  tell  them  of  its  uses. 


OCTOBER 

Apple,  flower  and  fruit. 


75 


I.  Branch,  showing  flowers  and  leaves.  II.  Vertical  section  through  the  flower. 
III.  Flower  after  the  petals  have  fallen.  IV.  Green  apple.  V.  Vertical  sec- 
tion, showing  thickened  calyx  and  ovary.    VI.   Cross-section  of  the  same. 


T6 


NATURE   STUDY 


Work  of  the  Codlin  Worm.    Larva. 
Codlin  Moth. 

Facts  : 


Pupa. 


Apple. 
For  facts,  see  p.  241. 

Method  : 

This  is  sufficiently 
well  indicated  in  the 
paragraph  on  the  Chest- 
nut. 

Blackboard  or  hekto- 
graph  drawings  of  the 
tree  in  spring,  of  a  single 
flower,  a  small  green  ap- 
ple, and  vertical  and 
cross  sections  of  the  ripe 
apple  should  be  used  to 
supplement  the  material. 

Burdock    Burrs    (Arc- 
tium lappa). 


This  plant  which  belongs  to  the  Composites  is  very 
commonly  found  in  waste  lots.  The 
flowers  are  purple,  rarely  white,  in 
color,  and  surrounded  by  an  involu- 
cre, each  scale  of  which  is  tipped 
with  hooks.  These,  by  catching  in 
the  clothing  of  man,  or  attaching 
themselves  to  other  animals,  serve  to 
distribute  the  fruit. 

Method  : 

Both  the   necessary  material  and  Burdock 


OCTOBER  77 

manner  of  using  it  have  been  sufficiently  indicated  in  the 
paragraphs  on  the  Chestnut  and  Apple. 

Stick-me-tight,  Beggar's  Lice  (Bidens  frondosa). 
Facts  : 

This  common  and  troublesome  weed  belongs  to 
the  same  family,  and  distributes  its  fruits  in  the 
same  way.     The  flowers  are  yellow. 

Method : 

Both  the  necessary  material  and  the  manner  of 
using  it  have  been   sufficiently  indicated  in  the  above 
paragraphs. 

Maple,  Ash,  Ailanthus. 

Facts : 

Many  maples  ripen  and  distribute  their  fruit  in  the 
spring,  but  others,  the  sycamore  maple  for  example,  re- 
tain the  keys  until  fall.  If  they  can  be  obtained,  these 
keys  will  serve  excellently  to  show  fruits  distributed  by 

the  wind.  The  ash 
or  ailanthus  will  an- 
swer equally  well. 
The  fruits  of  the  dan- 

Ailanthus,  fruit. 

delion,  thistle,  and 
milkweed  illustrate  the  same  point.  For  facts  with 
reference  to  maple  and  ailanthus  trees,  see  pp.  218-222. 
The  ash  is  among  the  most  graceful  of  trees  and  the 
most  useful.  Its  wood  resembles  the  chestnut  and  oak 
in  appearance,  but  is  lighter  in  color,  and  not  so  beautiful. 
It  is  elastic,  hard,  and  strong. 


78 


NATURE   STUDY 


Method  : 

It  would  be  an  excellent  plan  to  let  the  children  have 


Milkweed  seed. 


a  number  of  fruits,  like  the  ailanthus,  ash,  and  maple,  and 
note  their  resemblances  and  differences. 


Maple. 


Ash. 


OCTOBER  79 

All  of  them  agree  in  the  fact  that  they  are  fruits,  and 
that  the  seed  within  is  carefully  protected ;  all  have 
wings.  What  good  is  this  to  the  seed  ?  What  other 
fruits  are  distributed  by  the  wind  ? 

At  the  conclusion  of  these  lessons  the  children  should 
be  given  an  oral  language  lesson,  to  crystallize  the  gen- 
eral ideas  which  they  have  obtained  of  the  many  ways 
by  which  plants  protect  and  distribute  their  seeds. 

LITERATURE 

Stories : 

Plow  West  Wind  Helped  Dandelion,  ■)  T^    .,.    -r,     ,        .    ^      , 
T  -xxi    ^i,    .     X  T.  Enulie  Poulsson's  In  the 

Little  Chestnut  Boys,  V     ^,  ., ,,    „^    ,j 

„,..,•''  (      Child's  World. 

Sleeping  Apple,  J 

Dandelion  Clocks,  Mrs.  Ewing. 

Easij  Poems  : 

Dandelion  Fashions,  1     ,  r.     .  , 

,,.,,         J  Ti  ,  •  ;•  Eleanor  Smith. 

Milkweed  Babies,       j 

Dandelion  Cycle,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World. 

Dandelion,  Kate  Brown,  in  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 

Dandelion's  Complaint,  St.  Nicholas,  August,  1897. 

3Iore  Difficult  Poems  : 

Apple  Seed  John,  Lydia  Maria  Child,  in  Emilie  Poulsson's  In 

the  Child's  World. 
Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree,  Bryant. 
Bitter  Sweet  (Cellar  Scene),  Holland. 
The  Fruit  Gift,  Whittier. 
Maple,  Lowell. 

Winged  Seeds,  Helen  Gray  Cone,  in  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 
Dandelion,  in  Four  AViiids,  Hiawatha. 

Prose : 

The  Apple  (Winter  Sunshine),  Burroughs. 
Seed  Tramps,  Sharp  Eyes,  Gibson. 


80 


NATURE   STUDY 


ANIMALS 
English  Sparrows. 
Facts : 

The  male  sparrow  may  be  instantly  distinguished  from 
his  mate  by  the  white  bar  on  his  wings  and  the  black 
mark  on  his  throat  and  breast.     The  female  is  duller  in 


English  Sparrow,  male. 

color,  and  the  young  birds,  regardless  of  sex,  resemble 
her.  This  difference  in  color  between  the  sexes  is  even 
more  marked  in  many  other  birds,  and  is  variously 
accounted  for.  Darwin  believed  that  it  resulted  from 
sexual  selection,  the  female  choosing  for  her  mate  the 
most  brilliantly  colored  of  those  who  courted  her,  thus 
perpetuating  this  characteristic.  Wallace,  on  the  con- 
trary, believes  that  the  more  brilliantly  and  conspicuously 
colored  females  have  been  destroyed,  thus  continuing 
only  the  race  of  dull-colored  ones.     Others  think  that 


OCTOBER  81 

the  brilliant  coloring  of  the  male  is  the  visible  expres- 
sion of  his  greater  activity. 

The  beak  of  the  sparrow  is  a  cone,  the  line  of  the 
mouth  drooping  characteristically  downward.  It  is 
strong,  well  adapted  to  crushing  grain,  yet  delicate 
enough  to  pick  up  small  objects.  The  feet  are  typical 
of  the  percher,  four  slender  toes,  three  in  front  and  one 
behind. 

In  the  cities  it  nests  preferably  in  protected  corners 
of  buildings,  but  since  there  is  not,  nowadays,  a  suf- 
ficient niunber  of  such  places  for  the  innumerable 
sparrows,  they  have  learned  to  build  nests  in  the  trees. 
These  nests  serve  not  only  for  breeding  purposes,  but 
also  as  places  of  shelter  during  the  colder  winter  months. 
In  this  latitude  (Philadelphia)  they  begin  to  lay  eggs  in 
March,  and  the  young  are  quite  numerous  on  the  ground 
in  May. 

The  eggs  are  bluish  gvAj,  speckled  with  brown;  five 
or  six  in  the  large  feather-lined  nest.  The  mother  bird 
usually  occupies  a  week  in  dropping  the  eggs,  two 
weeks  in  hatching  them,  another  in  feeding  the  young 
birds  in  the  nest,  and  still  another  in  feeding  them 
outside.  Probably  about  four  broods  are  raised  in  a 
season. 

They  eat  all  kinds  of  vegetable  food,  feeding  particu- 
larly on  the  half-digested  grain  found  by  them  in  the 
horse  droppings  of  city  streets,  on  buds,  on  a  few  insects, 
but  never  on  hairy  caterpillars. 

They  are  quarrelsome,  unclean,  and  have  partially  or 
Avholly  exterminated  many  of  our  more  valuable  native 
birds.  ]Srevertheless,  since  by  their  enormous  breeding 
capacity  they  are  now  with  us  to  stay,  let  us  get  what 
we  can  out  of  them  by  studying  them  with  the  children. 


82  NATURE   STUDY 

Perhaps  those  whom  we  thus  educate  will  be  more  intel- 
ligent than  those  who  in  the  early  fifties  started  the 
sparrow  "  boom "  by  importing  and  protecting  numbers 
of  these  birds  from  England  and  Germany  under  the 
impression,  biologically  absurd,  that  a  conirostral  bird 
could  rid  a  country  of  insect  pests. 

Method : 

Study  the  birds  yourself  until  you  are  quite  sure  of 
the  facts. 

Take  the  children  out  of  doors.  Tell  them  that  Mr. 
Sparrow  wears  prettier  clothes  than  Mrs.  Sparrow,  and 
ask  them  to  pick  out,  if  they  can,  ]Mr.  and  Mrs.  Sparrow, 
and  to  notice  the  appearance  of  each. 

Although  the  sparrows  are  remarkably  fearless  and 
tame,  it  will  be  necessary  to  caution  the  children  to  keep 
at  some  distance  and  to  observe  quietly. 

At  this  time  of  the  year  corn,  bread  crumbs,  or  bird 
seed,  scattered  round  shortly  before  the  children  are 
sent  out,  will  be  sufficient  inducement  to  bring  within 
range  of  their  vision  all  the  sparrows  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

When  the  children  return  from  the  excursion,  distrib- 
ute hektograph  drawings  of  the  male  sparrow.  From 
these  obtain  a  description  of  the  bird. 

How  many  saw  birds  like  this  ?  What  was  the  color 
of  the  throat  and  breast?  How  many  saw  clear  white 
markings  on  the  wings  ?  How  many  saw  sparrows  with- 
out the  black  on  the  throat  or  the  white  on  the  wings '.' 
Were  they  young  or  old  birds  ?  Then  tell  them  which 
were  Mr.  Sparrows,  which  were  Mrs.  Sparrows,  and 
which  were  the  children. 

Tell  them  to  watch  to  see  what  else  the  sparrows  eat. 


OCTOBER  83 

Call  for  an  answer  to  this  question  several  mornings  in 
succession. 

Take  them  out  a  second  time  to  see  if  they  reall}'  do 
know  the  diiierence  between  the  male,  female,  and  young 
birds.   • 

Do  they  run  or  hop  ? 

With  Pictures: 

Why  would  it  be  difficult  for  the  sparrow  to  run? 
What  are  its  feet  good  for  ?  "Why  ?  "When  does  it  perch  ? 
Why  is  it  better  for  birds  to  perch  at  night  rather  than 
to  sleep  on  the  ground  ?  How  does  the  bill  of  the  spar- 
row differ  from  the  bill  of  the  robin  ?  Why  ?  From 
the  crow  ?  Why  ?  Where  are  its  nostrils  ?  Can  it 
hear  ?     VHij  do  you  think  so  ?     Where  are  its  ears  ? 

Look  at  its  forehead,  eyes,  nostrils,  mouth,  ears.  Are 
they  arranged  like  yours  ?  To  what,  then,  do  the  wings 
correspond  ? 

If  possible,  find  nesting  places  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
school,  and  take  the  children  to  them.  Bird-houses, 
holes  in  trees,  eaves  of  buildings,  are  the  most  likely 
places  in  which  to  seek  for  them. 

Get  a  nest,  and  let  them  see  of  what  diverse  materials 
it  is  built.     Why  ? 

LITERATURE 

The  various  readers  and  bird  books  may  be  used, 
although  there  is  very  little  in  any  of  them  with  refer- 
ence to  the  English  Sparrow  itself,  and,  indeed,  most  of 
the  usual  bird  stories  will  be  more  appropriate  to  spring 
study. 


84  NATURE   STUDY 

Birds'  Nests,  Gibson's  Sliarp  Eyes. 
Birds'  Nests,  Burrough's  Wake  Robin. 

Poems : 

Bird  Thotights,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World. 
The  Sparrow's  Nest,  Mary  Howitt. 


G- 


CHAPTER    III 

NOVEMBER 

Poems : 

November,  Thomas  Hood. 
November,  Alice  Gary. 
November,  Bryant. 
A  November  Day,  Whittier. 

Thanksgiving  (Harvest  Home). 
Stories  : 

A  Boston  Thanksgiving,  E.  E.  Hale.     Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the 

Child's  World. 
The  First  Thanksgiving,  Mrs.  Wiggin's,  and  Miss  Smith's  The 

Story  Hour. 
Thanksgiving  Story,  Wiltse's  Kindergarten  Stories. 

Poems : 

Thanksgiving  Day,  \  talker's  Songs  and  Games. 

Gan  a  Little  Ghild  Like  Me,  i 

Harvest  Song,  \  Eleanor  Smith's  Songs  for  Little  Ghil- 

Thanksgiving  Hymn,  /      dren. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  Lydia  Maria  Child  in  Whittier's  Ghild  Life. 


The  Pumpkin,  \  Whittier. 

For  an  Autumn  Festival.  > 


For  an  Autumn  Festival, 

WEATHER 
First  and  Second  Years  : 

In  addition  to  a  continuance  of  the  study  and  observa- 
tion of  the  wind,  clouds,  and  sun,  the  study  of  the  moon 
may  begin. 

86 


86 


NATURE   STUDY 


Facts  : 

The  moon  is  comparatively  and  varyingly  near  us,  and 
much  smaller  than  the  earth.  It  revolves  round  us, 
taking  about  twenty-nine  days  to  accomplish  its  journey. 
It  has  never  shown  to  us  but  the  one  side.  It  shines  by 
light  reflected  from  the  sun.     Light  reflected  back  from 

the  earth  causes 
the  appearance 
popularly  known 
as  "  the  old  moon 
in  the  new  moon's 
arms,"  the  out- 
line of  the  unil- 
lumined  portion 
of  the  moon  visi- 
ble a  few  days 
before  and  after 
the  new  moon. 

By  its  phases 
are  meant  the 
various  appear- 
ances wliich  it 
presents  in  its 
different  relative 

Phases  of  moon.  pOsitionS    tO    tllB 

sun  and  earth.  These  phases  are  the  new  moon,  the  first 
quarter,  full  moon,  last  quarter. 

The  causes  of  these  different  classes  below  are  best 
shown  by  the  diagram. 

The  delicate  crescent  of  the  new  moon,  with  its  horns 
turned  from  the  sun,  rises  in  the  west  just  after  sunset. 
It  soon  sets.  Each  night  it  rises  further  and  further 
towards  the  east,  and  sets  correspondingly  later.    Finally 


NOVEMBER  87 

it  reaches  a  point  directly  opposite  the  setting  sun,  and 
for  this  reason  has  its  full  half  surface  illuminated. 

The  full  moon  in  the  autumnal  equinox  rises  about 
sunset  for  several  days  in  succession,  thus  making  brill- 
iant moonlight  nights.  This  is  then  called  the  Harvest 
Moon.  The  same  thing  happens  in  October.  It  is  then 
called  the  Hunter's  Moon. 

After  the  full  moon,  less  and  less  of  the  surface  is 
illuminated.  It  rises  and  sets  later  and  later,  and  at 
this  time  may  be  seen  high  in  the  western  sky  long  after 
sunrise ;  so  that  those  who  feel  that  they  must  be  able  to 
show  the  moon  in  order  to  teach  it,  may  take  this  oppor- 
tunity to  begin  the  lessons. 

The  various  markings  visible  on  the  moon  are  caused 
by  inequalities  of  its  surface — the  Mountains  of  the 
Moon.  There  are  no  clouds  above  it,  and  therefore  no 
water  on  its  surface,  although  there  may  be  ice. 

Although  all  nations  see  the  same  side  and  markings 
on  the  moon,  their  legendary  interpretation  has  been 
very  different.  The  Chinese  saw  a  rabbit  pounding  rice  ; 
the  Germans,  a  man  carrying  a  bundle  of  fagots ;  the 
Icelanders,  our  own  familiar  Jack  and  Gill ;  and  the 
Indians,  according  to  Hiawatha,  the  grandmother  of  an 
angry  warrior. 

Method : 

Why  is  it  dark  at  night  ?  Is  it  always  dark  ?  Why 
not  ?  Which  is  brighter,  the  sun  or  the  moon  ?  Why  ? 
How  far  is  the  moon  from  us  ?  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  ? 
Does  it  look  larger  or  smaller  than  the  sun  ?     Why  ? 

Has  the  moon  always  the  same  form  ?  What  different 
forms  ?  Why  ?  What  makes  the  man  in  the  moon  ? 
Is  it  warm   or  cold  in  the  moon  ?     Are  there  clouds, 


88 


NATURE    STUDY 


water,  air  ?     Could  people  like  us  live  in  the  moon  ? 
Why  not  ? 

What  day  of  the  Aveek  was  named  for   the  moon  ? 
Why  ?     Why  was  the  word  month 
named  for  the  moon  ? 

What  do  the  Chinese  children 
see   in  the  moon  ?      The  little 
people  in  Iceland  ?     The  Ger- 
mans ?     The  Indians  ?    Why 
do  the  different  children  see 
different  things  ? 

LITERATURE 

Myths  and  Legends : 

Greek,  Diana  and  En- 
dymion. 

Chinese,  Harper's  Mag- 
azine, 1881. 

Indian,  Clodd's  Birth 
and  Growth  of  Myth. 

Icelandic,  Fisi^e's  Myths 
and  Myth  Makers. 

German,  Fiske's  Myths 
and  Myth  Makers. 

Easy  Poems  : 

Two  verses  from  Seven 
Times  One,  Jean  Ingelow. 
jjijng  Children  in  the  Moon, 

Whittier's  Child  Life. 

New  Moon,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 

Silver  Moon, 

New  Moon, 

Baby  and  the  Moon, 

Who  has  the  Whitest  Lambkins  ? 

Waning  Moon,  Celia  Thaxter. 


Eleanor  Smith. 


NOVEMBER 


89 


Endymion. 


Thikd  and  Eourth  Years  : 
Weather  Records  : 

The  weather  record  for  October  should  be  examined, 
and  a  record  made,  in  the  space  provided  for  that  piir- 
pose,  of  the  prevailing  wind. 

If  the  excursions  have  been  frequent  enough  and  sup- 
plemented by  proper  teaching,  the  children  will  now 
know  the  names  of  all  the  common  clouds  that  are  likely 


90 


NATURE   STUDY 


WEATHER   RECORD,    No.    II. 

Note. — This  should  be  printed  on  paper  8  in.  x  12  in.,  to  give 
sufficient  space  for  children's  writing. 

Name, 

Grade. 

School. 

Weather  Record  for  the  2Ionth  of 18 

Observations  Made  at 


Date 

Direc- 
tion OF 
Wind 

Velocity 
OF  Wind 

Clouds 

Date 

Direc- 
tion OF 
Wind 

Velocity 
OF  Wind 

Clouds 

What  has  been  the  prevailing  wind  this  month  ?_ 

Has  it  usually  been  strong  or  gentle  ? 

What  kind  of  clouds  have  been  commonly  seen  9- 


^•0V  EMBER  91 

to  occur  in  November.  Tliey  should  therefore  be  given 
Weather  Record,  Ko.  II.,  with  its  spaces,  not  only  for 
the  daily  record  of  the  wind,  its  direction,  and  force,  but 
also  for  the  names  of  the  clouds.  Instead  of  writing  the 
names  in  full,  they  might  now  use  the  proper  abbrevia- 
tions, which  are  as  follows  : 

Cumulus  ....  cu. 

Stratus s. 

Nimbus    ....  n. 

Cirrus ci. 

Mixed  clouds,  such  as  strato-cumulus,  have  for  their 
abbreviation  a  combination  of  the  two,  in  this  case  s.  cu. 

The  teacher,  at  least,  should  now  begin  to  watch  the 
clouds  with  reference  to  their  indications  of  future 
weather.  She  herself  can  best  judge  when  is  the  appro- 
priate time  to  teach  what  she  learns,  but  certainly  she 
should  learn  sometime  during  the  year  the  following 
facts : 

The  commonest  cloud  form  in  summer  is  the  cumulus. 
In  Avinter  stratus  and  cirrus  clouds  prevail.  In  autumn 
cirro-cumulus  and  alto-cumulus  are  most  frequently  seen ; 
and  in  spring  cirro-stratus  and  cirrus. 

Slowly  moving  cirrus  clouds  indicate  a  probable  slight 
change  in  temperature.  If  they  are  moving  rapidly 
along,  the  chances  are  in  favor  of  a  decided  change. 
This  is  likely  to  be  a  fall  in  twenty-four  hours,  espe- 
cially when  the  wind  is  from  the  southwest.  When  the 
wind  is  northwest,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  likely  to  be 
a  rise  in  temperature  within  twenty-four  hours. 

With  cirro-stratus  clouds  there  is  some  probability  of 
rain;  with  alto-cumulus  and  alto-stratus,  the  likelihood 
is  greater.     Cirro-cumulus  clouds  indicate  fair  weather. 


92  NATURE   STUDY 

Obviously,  even  these  few  facts  cannot  be  learned  by 
any  one  in  less  than  a  year.  They  are  merely  given  here 
for  the  convenience  of  the  teacher,  and  will  be  referred 
to  again  when  the  occasion  demands. 

To  do  effective  work  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  the 
teacher,  even  more  than  the  children,  should  observe  and 
think  about  the  weather  conditions. 

I  would  again  urge  a  set  time  for  the  daily  written 
record  by  the  children,  and  a  few  minutes  immediately 
after  this  for  a  free  discussion  of  the  facts  and  their 
meanings. 

Temperature  : 

Every  schoolhouse  should  have,  just  outside  the  door, 
a  large  alcohol  thermometer,  so  placed  that  the  mark  50° 
is  level  with  the  eye  of  the  medium-sized  child. 

It  is  worth  while,  if  it  be  possible,  to  have  a  cheap 
thermometer  for  every  other  child.  This,  perhaps,  can 
be  managed  by  teaching  the  children  in  small  groups. 

Facts : 

Heat  causes  the  mercury  to  rise ;  cold,  to  fall. 

A  thermometer  can  only  be  accurately  read  when  the 
top  of  the  mercury  column  is  on  a  level  with  the  eye. 

In  the  winter,  north  and  west  winds  usually  bring  cold; 
south  and  east  winds,  warmth. 

Method  : 

Make  the  children  handle  the  thermometers  without 
touching  the  mercury  column.  No  teacher  needs  to  be 
told  that  this  demands  from  her  clear  directions  and 
vigilance  in  seeing  that  they  are  obeyed. 


NOVEMBER  93 

Holding  them  in  this  way,  let  them  describe  the 
instrument. 

Nearest  what  number  is  the  top  of  the  column  ? 

Let  them  put  their  hands  about  the  bulb.  What  is 
happening  ?     Nearest  what  number  is  it  now  ? 

Let  them  put  the  bulbs  in  ice-water.  What  is  happen- 
ing ?     Nearest  what  number  is  it  now  ? 

What  effect  has  heat  on  the  column  of  mercury  ?  Cold  ? 
Why  ?     For  what  purpose  is  a  thermometer  used  ? 

With  a  blackboard  drawing,  make  clear  to  the  children 
the  exact  value  of  each  of  the  spaces.  Give  them  con- 
siderable practice  in  reading  from  the  board  before  using 
a  large  thermometer.  Let  several  children  read  from 
this,  holding  it  much  below  the  eye,  then  on  a  level,  then 
above  the  eye.  Put  these  numbers,  which  will  probably 
be  in  the  ratio  of  71°,  72°,  73°,  on  the  board,  and  ask  for 
the  explanation. 

In  my  own  teaching,  the  children  have  always  given 
as  a  reason  that  the  heated  air  has  expanded  and 
ascended.  Asked  to  think  more  about  it,  they  came 
the  next  day  fortified  by  the  assurances  of  their  fatheus 
and  grandfathers  that  this  is  the  real  explanation.  So 
strong  is  their  belief  in  the  wisdom  of  themselves  and 
their  families  that  several  demonstrations  of  the  fact 
that  the  change  was  due  to  the  position  of  the  eye,  and 
not  to  any  change  in  the  thermometer,  were  necessary  to 
convince  them  of  their  error.  To  do  this,  keep  the  ther- 
mometer stationary  while  the  child,  by  stooping,  by 
standing  erect,  by  standing  on  an  elevation,  sees  that  the 
reading  varies  with  his  position. 

These  lessons  in  accurate  reading  should  be  followed 
by  the  examination  and  criticism  of  the  results  of  their 
daily  inspection  of  the  school  thermometer. 


94  NATURE    STUDY        • 

Add  a  column  for  temperature  in  the  blackboard  record, 
and  constantly  call  attention  to  the  relationship  between 
the  wind  and  the  temperature.  By  a  record  of  observa- 
tions, made  at  different  times  in  the  day,  establish  the 
fact  that,  ordinarily,  the  temperature  rises  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  continues  to  rise  until  about  three  in  the  after- 
noon, and  then  as  gradually  falls.     Why  is  this  ? 

After  the  lessons  on  temperature,  teach  the  facts  about 
the  sun  given  on  p.  64. 

PLANTS 

Obviously  the  preparation  of  plants  for  winter  must 
be  the  subject  for  botanical  work  in  November.  This 
preparation  goes  on  all  summer,  but  the  results  of  this 
labor  are  more  markedly  visible  in  fall. 

Trees  : 

Long  before  the  leaves  begin  to  fall,  a  close  observer 
may  find  buds  containing,  in  miniature,  the  whole  of 
next  year's  growth.  These  buds  attain  their  full  growth 
shortly  before  the  leaves  drop  off. 

Many  are  the  devices  by  which  the  treasures  within 
are  protected.  Numerous  thick  scales  and  woolly  linings 
serve  to  keep  some  from  the  cold  of  winter,  while  a  shiny 
outside,  resin  or  gum,  protects  them  from  injury  from 
rain  cr  melting  snow. 

The  leaves  themselves  turn  yellow,  and  the  food 
which  they  have  been  making  goes  into  the  twigs  and 
branches.  The  green  chlorophyll  which  did  the  work 
becomes  disorganized.  To  this  is  mainly  due  the  yellow 
or  red  color  of  autumn  leaves. 

A  new  row  of  cells  is  formed,  cutting  across  the  stalk 
of  the  leaf.     This  causes  the  fall  of  the  leaf.     When  the 


NOVEMBER  95 

frosts  come,  a  layer  of  ice  is  here  formed,  which,  melt- 
ing and  hence  expanding,  separates  many  leaves  at  one 
time  from  the  branch. 

These  leaves  have  done  much  for  the  trees ;  in  them 
have  been  effected  the  respiration  and  the  digestion  of  the 
plant.  But  their  good  work  does  not  end  with  their 
death.  Decayed  leaves  (leaf  mould)  are  a  very  necessary 
and  valuable  ingredient  of  the  soil. 

The  tree  itself  is  much  better  off  without  the  leaves, 
since  it  is  now  too  cold  for  them  to  do  any  work.  Its 
food  material  will  be  more  effectively  protected  in  the 
branches,  and  it  can  stand  more  vigorously  against  the 
storms  and  snows  of  winter  now  that  all  superfluous 
clothing  is  removed  from  it. 

Even  the  trees  which  retain  their  leaves  make  some 
preparation  for  winter.  The  green  chlorophyll  retires 
for  protection  to  the  innermost  part  of  their  leaves, 
which,  in  consequence,  lose  the  vividness  of  their  green. 

Method : 

Let  the  children  compare  the  green  leaves  on  the  tree 
with  those  that  are  turning  yellow,  and  also  with  those 
that  have  fallen  to  the  ground.  Take  them  out  to  collect 
the  last  material,  and  see  that  they  get  freshly  fallen 
leaves  as  Avell  as  those  which  have  already  begun  to 
decay. 

Let  them  observe  the  change  in  color  which  precedes 
and  follows  the  falling. 

What  work  for  the  plant  is  done  by  the  green  of  the 
leaf  ?  What  has  become  of  all  this  food  ?  Why  has 
the  leaf  changed  in  color  ?  What  else  has  happened  ? 
AVhy  do  so  many  leaves  fall  after  a  frost  ?  What  good 
is  the  leaf  after  it  falls  from  the  tree  ?     AVliat  advantage 


96 


NATURE   STUDY 


is  it  to  the  tree  to  be  without  leaves  all  winter  ?  From 
what  trees  do  the  leaves  fall  first  ?  last  ?  On  what 
trees  do  the  withered  leaves  persist  ?  What  is  left  to 
mark  the  place  on  the  branches  where  the  leaf  was  ? 
Where  are  next  year's  leaves?  ^^^aen  were  these  buds 
made  ?  Why  are  they  so  small  ?  Why  is  their  coat 
shiny  ?  sticky  ?     Why  has  it  so  many  coverings  ? 

Bulbs  axd  Fleshy  Roots. 

Facts  : 

All  plants  that  survive  the  winter  protect  themselves 
in  some  way  against  cold,  and  also  store  up  sufficient  food 
to  start  their  growth  next  year.  The  onion,  hyacinth, 
tulip,  die  down  to  the  ground,  but  not  until  they  have 
formed  beneath  the  ground  a  short,  thickened  branch  on 


Toiin{  bolb 


Hyacinth  bulb. 

which  are  borne  closely  crowded  leaves  full  of  nourish- 
ment and  covering  over  a  perfect  little  flower  or  stalk  of 
flowers.     This  we  call  a  bulb. 

It  only  needs  a  short  period  of  rest  in  the  cold,  fol- 


NOVEMBER  97 

lowed  by  abundance  of  moisture  and  warmth,  to  con- 
vince it  that  winter  has  passed,  that  spring  has  come, 
and  that  it  is  now  time  to  begin  to  grow.  This  is  the 
method  and  philosophy  of  forcing  bulbs  into  bloom  in 
the  winter. 

Oftentimes  the  nourishment  for  the  next  season's 
growth  is  stored  in  the  roots.  Sweet  potatoes,  carrots, 
beets,  turnips,  are  excellent  examples  of  this.  They,  too, 
may  be  deceived  into  thinking  that  winter  has  gone,  and 
that  spring  is  here.  One  may  cut  the  lower  end  from  a 
carrot,  scoop  out  some  of  the  centre,  keep  it  filled  with 
water  in  a  warm  room,  and  watch,  with  delight,  the  green 
branches  which  insist  upon  growing  upwards  from  the 
lower  end. 

Method : 

A  hyacinth  bulb  cut  vertically  in  half  shows  perfectly 
the  short  thick  stem,  the  numerous  leaves,  and  the  flower 
stalk  within.  Before  showing  this,  ask  the  children  the 
previous  history  of  the  bulb.  They  will  know  that  there 
was  a  hyacinth  in  the  spring  with  beautiful  sweet-scented 
flowers  and  numerous  green  leaves,  and  that  both  have 
died  long  since.  You  will  have  to  tell  them  that  after  the 
flower  had  passed  away,  the  leaves  worked  with  all  their 
strength  to  make  and  to  give  food  to  little  underground 
branches  which  are  really  just  like  little  plants,  except 
that  they  were  not  green. 

Show  the  cut  bulb,  and,  by  drawing  or  otherwise,  make 
them  realize  that  it,  too,  has  leaves  and  flowers.  Ask 
them  why  the  leaves  are  not  yet  green,  why  they  are  so 
small,  so  thick,  why  they  are  so  compact  and  well  cov- 
ered ?  Ask  them  when  this  bulb  will  begin  to  grow  and 
why  ?  Will  it  grow  now  if  we  give  it  water  and  warmth  ? 

H 


98  NATURE    STUDY 

Why  not  ?  How  can  we  make  it  believe  that  winter  has 
come  and  gone  ? 

Either  a  hyacinth  or  a  narcissus  bulb  should  then  be 
placed  in  a  glass  so  that  the  lower  end  just  touches 
water.  Keep  them  for  six  weeks  in  a  cool,  dark  place ; 
or,  better  still,  plant  them  in  a  pot  of  earth  sunk  in  the 
ground,  and  covered  with  manure  and  straw  to  prevent 
a  succession  of  freezings  and  subsequent  thawings.  At 
the  end  of  six  weeks,  either  the  glass  or  the  pot  may  be 
brought  in  the  light  and  warmth,  and  will  probably 
bloom  within  two  months. 

One  is  apt  to  have  better  luck  with  bulbs  planted  in  a 
pot,  but  those  growing  in  a  glass  show  beautifully  the 
long  roots  protected  at  the  tip  by  a  root  cap. 

In  growing  in  a  glass,  be  careful  to  keep  the  water 
pitre.  Cloudy  water  means  bacteria,  and  these  will 
cause  decay  of  the  roots.  Even  when  in  the  dark  the 
glasses  should  be  examined  weekly,  and  the  water 
changed  when  necessary.  Keep  a  piece  of  charcoal  in 
the  water. 

The  same  method  should  be  pursued  with  at  least  one 
of  the  edible  roots. 

LITERATURE 

Stories  : 

Kind  Old  Oak,  Marah  Pratt's  Little  Flower  Folk. 

Baby  Bud's  Winter  Clothes,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's 

World. 
The  Anxious  Leaf,  Beecher's  Norwood. 

Easy  Poems : 

Do  the  Little  Brown  Twigs  Complain  ?  ■>  Eleanor  Smith's  Songs 
Come  Little  Leaves.  J      for  Little  Children. 

I'll  Tell  You  How  the  Leaves  Come  Down,  Susan  Coolidge. 


NOVEMBER  .  99 

Kitten  and  the  Falling  Leaves,  Wordsworth. 
Some  of  the  more  difBcult  poems  have  already  been  given  under 
the  heading  of  Autumn  at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter. 


ANIMALS 
The  Pigeon. 

Facts : 

As  its  bill  indicates,  the  pigeon  is  a  grain-eating  bird. 
It  belongs  to  the  Scratchers  and  not  to  the  Perchers. 
This  is  shown  by  its  feet,  the  toes  of  which,  particu- 
larly the  hind  toe,  are  much  stouter  and  shorter  than 
those  of  the  sparrow. 

The  nostrils  are  situated  about  the  middle  of  the  bill 
and  can  be  located  by  the  swollen  skin  above  them. 
They  drink  without  raising  the  head. 

These  birds  build  the  roughest  of  nests,  lay  two  white 
eggs,  on  which  both  the  father  and  mother  sit.  The 
ugly  naked  young  are  called  squabs.  They  are  fed  with 
a  milklike  secretion  from  the  crop  of  their  parents. 
Both  squabs  and  pigeons  are  excellent  food  for  men. 

Method : 

The  same  method  of  teaching  should  be  used  as  in  the 
study  of  the  sparrow,  Avhich  see,  pp.  82,  83. 

In  addition,  the  children  should  compare  the  two  birds 
and  have  a  clear  picture  in  their  minds  of  Perchers  and 
Scratchers. 

AxiMAL  Preparation  for  Winter. 

Facts : 

The  preparation  made  by  the  caterpillars  for  winter 
has  been  already  demonstrated.     They  have  either  cov- 


100  NATURE    STUDY 

ered  themselves  with  a  thick  coat  and  buried  themselves 
beneath  the  ground,  or  else  have  spun  for  themselves  a 
silken  covering  impervious  either  to  moisture  or  to  cold. 
The  locusts  and  most  of  the  butterflies  are  dead. 
The  ^Milkweed  Butterfly,  however,  has  gone  south  with 
many  of  the  birds,  and  the  ^Mourning  Cloak,  follow- 
ing the  example  of  the  Queen  Humble  Bee,  has  found 
some  sheltered  corner  in  which  to  spend  the  winter. 
Beetles  are  pupating  in  the  ground.  The  larger  ani- 
mals, such  as  squirrels,  snakes,  tortoises,  turtles,  and 
the  like,  have  found  their  winter  quarters  and  have  pre- 
pared for  their  long  sleep,  either  by  collecting  a  store  on 
Avhich  to  feed  in  the  warmer  days,  or  by  having  eaten 
a  goodly  supply  when  food  was  more  abundant.  Even 
the  aquarium  animals  are  more  torpid  and  less  inclined 
to  eat. 

Method  : 

Suggestions  have  already  been  given  about  the  study 
of  the  various  insects  and  how  they  may  be  kept  in  a 
schoolroom.  It  is  equally  easy  to  have  squirrels,  guinea 
pigs,  rabbits,  mice,  garter  snakes,  turtles,  and  an  aquarium. 
Cages  with  revolving  wheels  are  manufactured  specially 
for  squirrels,  giving  the  animal  opportunity  for  plenty 
of  exercise.  Excellent  cheap  cages  may  be  made  with 
coarse  meshed  wire  nailed  over  and  above  four  upright 
supports.  These  need  not  be  more  than  a  foot  and  a 
half  high  for  rabbits  and  guinea  pigs.  Three  feet  is 
a  better  height  for  squirrels. 

Of  course  in  the  warm  schoolroom  they  do  not  hiber- 
nate, but  they  do  take  much  longer  naps  than  in  Sep- 
tember. ]\rake  the  children  realize  this  fact  and  its 
reason.     Observe,  too,  that  the  squirrel  hides  his  nuts  be- 


NOVEMBER  101 

fore  eating  them,  the  hereditary  instinct  to  prepare  for 
winter  ruling  him,  even  Avhen  no  necessity  for  it  exists. 

Garter  snakes,  easily  kept  in  insect  vivaria  of  any  kind, 
absolutely  refuse  to  eat  during  the  winter.  The  same  is 
true  of  alligators  and  frogs. 

Turtles  will  bury  themselves  in  a  bed  of  damp  sand, 
allowing  only  the  tip  of  the  nose  above  ground. 

Frogs  may  be  kept  similarly,  although  an  aquarium 
with  a  large  island,  some  water  plants,  and  a  very  little 
water  is  more  to  their  liking.  It  will  be  necessary  to  close 
the  opening  with  netting. 

Call  attention  to  such  facts  with  regard  to  hibernation 
and  migration  as  happen  to  come  within  your  horizon 
and  that  of  the  children.  Supplement  these  with  read- 
ing and  language  lessons. 


LITERATURE 
Stories  : 

The  readers,  particularly  Johonnot's,  are  full  of  stories 
of  pigeons,  and  also  of  the  preparation  of  animals  for 
winter. 

The  Stork  (Migration  of  Birds),  Andersen. 

The  Ant  and  the  Grasshopper  (Preparation  of  Animals  for  "Win- 
ter), ^sop. 

Hibernation  of  Bears,  Readings  in  Xature's  Book. 

Coming  and  Going  (Migration  of  Birds),  Wiltse's  Kindergarten 
Stories. 

Broken  Wing  (Migration  of  Birds),  Emerson's  Indian  Myths. 

Crane  Express,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World. 

Poems  : 

Little  Squirrel,  St.  Nicholas  Songs. 
Flight  of  the  Birds,  E.  C.  Stedman. 
Departure  of  the  Swallow,  William  Howitt. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DECEMBER 


Poems 


December,  Lougfellow. 

December,  Lowell. 

In  Time's  Swing,  Lucy  Larcom. 

Winter. 

Stories  : 

Ceres  and  Proserpine. 
Death  of  Baldur. 

Poems : 

Winter,  Tennyson. 
Approach  of  Winter,  B.  W.  Procter. 
Woods  in  Winter,  Longfellow. 
Winter,  Whittier's  Cliild  Life. 

Christmas. 

Stories  : 

Tiny  Tim,  Christmas  Carol,  Dickens. 

The  Fir  Tree,  )    .     , 

^  '     ,     ^ ,  ,  ^  ,     V  Andersen. 

Last  Dream  of  the  Old  (Jak,  J 

Story  of  Christmas,  Mrs.  Wiggin's  and  Miss  Smith's  The  Story 

Hour. 

Christmas,  Irving's  Sketch  Book. 

102 


DECEMBER  103 

Easy  Poems  : 

The  Night  Before  Christmas,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 

Waken,  Little  Children,  1 

Christmas  Hymn,  ,    j^iganor   Smith's    Songs   for    Little 

Green  Holly  Boughs,  Children. 


Bells  are  Ringing, 

Stars. 

First  and  Second  Years. 

Facts  : 

The  stars  which  shine  with  a  steady  light  are  planets, 
like  our  own  earth ;  those  that  twinkle,  are  suns.  The 
brightest  of  the  planets  are  Venus,  sometimes  visible  in 
full  daylight,  and  Jupiter,  the  largest  of  all.  Venus  is 
never  seen  except  in  the  east  or  west ;  Jupiter  is  found  in 
the  south.  Saturn  is  paler,  and  Mars  may  be  known  by 
its  reddish  color.     The  other  planets  are  less  easily  found. 

The  twinkling  of  the  fixed  stars  is  not  intrinsic,  but 
due  to  atmospheric  conditions.  It  is  more  marked  in 
tropical  regions,  where,  too,  the  stars  are  more  brilliantly 
colored.  In  our  own  zone  it  is  more  noticeable  just  above 
the  horizon  than  in  the  zenith. 

The  constellations  most  easily  found  in  our  latitude 
are  the  Great  Bear,  or  Dipper,  Cassiopeia,  and  the  Dragon. 
When  in  addition  to  these  Auriga  and  Lyra  are  known, 
all  of  the  other  constellations  may  be  easily  located. 

The  first  brilliant  star  in  a  line  with  the  4;wo  pointers 
of  the  Dipper  is  the  North  Star.  This  is  again  the  outer- 
most star  of  the  handle  of  the  Little  Dipper.  Directly 
opposite  the  Dipper,  using  the  North  Star  as  a  centre, 
will  be  found  the  straggling  W  which  makes  the  con- 
stellation of  Cassiopeia.  Equidistant  from  the  North 
Star,  and  also  from  Cassiopeia  and  the  Dipper,  will  be 


104  NATURE   STUDY 

found  on  the  one  side  Capella,  the  most  brilliant  star  of 
Auriga,  and  opposite  to  it,  Vega,  which  belongs  to  Lyra. 


J2   * 

^    Q. 

o 


♦     *    rt 


■♦^ 

CO 

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o 

OL 

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o 

Q. 

♦ 

a. 

♦ 

'o 

♦ 

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is  ^  .9-  ^         <« 

O 

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> 


The  principal  stars  of  Auriga  form  an  irregular  five-sided 
figure.  Besides  Vega,  there  is  a  parallelogram  of  four 
stars,  forming  the  constellation  of  Lyra. 


DECEMBER  105 

When  once  these  constellations  are  learned,  then  with 
almost  any  of  the  numerous  Guides  to  the  Heavens,  one 
may  locate  the  others.  This  is  not  only  a  very  enjoyable 
occupation,  but  will  certainly,  as  nothing  else  can,  put 
the  teacher  in  touch  with  such  of  the  myths  as  have  a 
nature  basis. 

The  Milky  Way  is  a  luminous,  cloudlike  band,  which 
stretches  across  the  heavens  in  a  great  circle,  consisting 
of  myriads  of  stars  densely  crowded  together,  but  so  far 
distant  from  us,  that  to  our  naked  eyes  there  is  only  the 
appearance  of  diffused  light. 

Our  earth  is  travelling  forward  rapidly  through  space 
with  the  sun,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  stars  them- 
selves are  moving  in  different  directions  and  with  vary- 
ing velocity,  so  that  ultimately  the  whole  appearance  of 
the  heavens  must  change.  Nevertheless,  no  variation 
worth  mentioning,  except  by  the  astronomer,  has  yet 
occurred  within  the  memory  of  man.  Nothing  is  more 
invariable,  apparently,  than  tlie  stars.  For  this  reason 
they  are  invaluable  aids  to  the  mariner. 

Method : 

Which  gives  us  the  most  light,  the  sun  or  the  moon  ? 
the  moon  or  the  stars?  AVhy  is  the  sun  brighter  than 
the  moon?  Why  is  the  moon  brighter  than  the  stars? 
Which  looks  to  be  larger,  the  moon  or  the  stars  ?  AVhy  ? 
Some  stars  are  like  our  earth;  others  like  our  sun. 
What  does  the  earth  look  like  to  the  people  of  Mars? 
If  there  are  other  inhabited  worlds  revolving  round  the 
star-suns,  what  does  the  earth  look  like  to  them?  What 
does  our  sun  look  like  ? 

Are  the  stars  of  any  use  to  us? 


106  NATUKE   STUDY 


LITERATURE 
Myths : 

The  Great  and  Little  Bear,  —  Diana,  Callisto,  and  Areas. 

Draco,  —  Cadmus  and  Tiiebe. 

Cassiopeia,  —  Perseus  and  Andromeda. 

Aries,  the  Ram,  —  Story  of  the  Golden  Fleece. 

The  Pleiades. 

Gemini,  the  Twins,  —  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Orion. 

Ariadne's  Crown. 

The  Milky  Way,  a  Russian  Legend. 

Indian  Myths,  I  ^*^^^"'^tl^<^L'ly- 

I  Daughter  of  the  Stars.         * 

Stories  : 

Child's  Dream  of  a  Star,  Dickens. 

Will  O'  the  Wisp,  Mrs.  Gatty's  Parables  from  Nature. 

Star  of  Bethlehem. 

Easy  Poems : 

Stars  and  Daisies,  ^  ^^^^^^^  g^j^j^,^  g^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^ 

Sleep,  Baby,  Sleep,  V     Children. 

Twinkle,  Twinkle,  Little  Star,  ) 

A  Naughty  Little  Comet,  Ella  Wheeler  Wilcox,  "1  Lovejoy's  Nature 

The  Star's  Ball,  /      in  Verse. 

Starlight,  Lucy  Larcom. 

Daises,  |-p_  p   Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Elfin  Lamps,  i 

Stars,  Barry  Cornwall. 

Legend  of  the  Great  Dipper,  U^^^^^.^  gtories  for  Khidergartens. 

Peep,  Star,  > 


DECEMBER 


107 


WEATHER   RECORD,   No.   III. 

Note.  — This  should  be  printed  ou  paper  8  in.  x  12  in.  to  give 
sufficient  space  for  children's  writing. 

Name, 

Grade. 


School. 


Weather  Becordfor  the  Month  of^ 
Observations  made  at. 


Date 

DlREC- 

Tiox  or 
Wind 

Force 

OF 

Wind 

Tem- 
pera- 
ture 

Eainou 
Snow 

Clovds 

Summary  of  Obser- 
vations 



1 

108  NATURE   STUDY 


WEATHER 
Snowflakes  : 

Take  advantage  of  the  first  snowstorm  for  a  lesson  on 
the  snowflakes. 

Facts  : 

The  relation  between  raindrops  and  snowflakes  is  very 
close.  For  example,  the  rains  of  winter  are  often  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  snow  melts  before  reaching  the  earth,  so 
that  from  the  same  clonds  may  fall  snow  on  the  highlands 
and  rain  in  the  valleys. 

Snowflakes  have  always  six  parts.  This  is  because 
the  ice  needles,  acting  like  small  magnets,  are  attracted 
and  repelled  by  laws  of  their  own,  forming  regular  and 
very  beautiful  figures  on  the  hexagonal  plan. 

Method  : 

Choose  a  snowstorm  when  the  flakes  are  very  large. 
Let  the  children  collect  the  falling  snowflakes  on  black 
cloth  and  observe  their  shape.  What  is  happening  to 
the  snowflakes  ?  Why  ?  Who  could  turn  the  water  drops 
back  into  snoAv?  Where  must  the  drops  be  to  become 
snow  crystals  again?  What  does  Jack  Frost  make  of 
the  water  that  is  on  the  earth  ?  in  the  sky  ? 

What  good  is  the  snow  to  the  plants?  Who  build 
houses  of  snow  or  ice  to  keep  themselves  warm  ? 

"Weather  Records  : 

The  daily  record  for  November  (Weather  Record,  No. 
II.)  must  be  examined  by  the  children  to  determine  the 
prevailing  wind,  its  character,  and  the  prevailing  cloud 
forms  of  the  months. 


DECEMBER  109 

Weather  Eecord,  No.  III.  (p.  107),  may  be  given 
to  the  children  for  December.  The  general  plan  outlines, 
in  Chaps.  II.  and  III.  for  using  these,  should  be  pursued. 

LITERATURE 

Stories  : 

Snow  Queen,  -| 

Snow  Man,     |-  Andersen. 

Ice  Maiden,    J 

Snow  Image,  Hawthorne. 

Circle  of  Blessing,  Mrs.  Gatty's  Parables  from  Nature. 

Snow  Flakes,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  ^yorld. 

Easy  Poems  : 

The  Tree  in  Winter,     i 

Snow  Clouds,  i  Eleanor  Smith's  Songs  for  Little 

Little  White  Feather,  [       Children. 

Old  Jack  Frost,  J 

Tiny  Little  Snow  Flakes,  Walker's  Songs  and  Games. 

Snow  Flakes,  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life  is  Young. 

Snow  Flakes  (First  Verse),  Longfellow. 

Hide  and  Seek,  F.  D.  Sherman  in  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 

Jack  Frost,  H.  F.  Gould,  in  Whittier's  Child  Life. 

Snow  Song,  Lucy  Larcom. 

More  Difficult  Poems : 

Winter,  Tennyson. 

Extract  from  Song  of  the  Sower,  Bryant. 

P2xtract  from  Frost  Spirit,  Whittier. 

Snow  Storm,  Emerson. 

First  Snow-fall,  Lowell. 

Snow  Shower,  Bryant. 

PLANTS 
The  Holly,  the  Mistletoe,  and  the  Christmas  Tree,  which 
is  ahvays  either  a  Spruce  or  a  Balsam  Fir,  should  be 
saved  for  the  lessons  just  before  Christmas.     The  Christ- 
mas Tree  might  be  studied  by  the  pupils  of  the  first  and 


110 


NATURE    STUDY 


second  years,  the  Holly  by  the  third,  year,  and  the  Mis- 
tletoe by  the  fourth  year. 

The  other  common  evergreens  —  Hemlock,  Pine,  Arbor 
Vitse  —  may  be  studied  earlier  in  the  month. 

PixES : 

The  pines  most  likely  to  be  found  in  this  vicinity *are 
the  White,  Red,  and  Pitch  Pine. 

The  White  Pixe  grows  to  be  the  tallest  and  most 
stately  of  all  our  American  trees.  Its  bark  is  rather 
smooth  and  reddish  green.  Its  branches  are  in  whorls 
of  five,  and  although  all  but  the  upper  branches  decay 
and  disappear,  yet  traces  remain  of  the  older  branches, 

and  the  age  of  the  tree  may 
be  determined  with  their 
aid,  since  a  new  whorl  is 
formed  each  year. 

The  long  green  leaves 
are  five  in  number,  and 
arranged  in  tufts  at  the 
ends  of  branches. 

The  year-old  cones,  two 
or  three  inches  in  length, 
are  green.     They  are   ma- 
ture at  the  end  of  the  next 
season,  brown  in  color,  and 
from    four    to    six    inches 
long.     Before  fertilization, 
the  scales  are  open,  so  that 
the  pollen  may  reach  the 
ovules.     Afterwards,  they  become  tightly  closed  and  open 
only  to  distribute  the  winged  seeds,  Avhich,  like  nearly  all 
the  seeds  of  this  family,  are  very  excellent  eating. 


White  Pine,  branch  and  cone. 


DECEMBER 


111 


Pine  wood  is  soft,  but  is  much  used  for  building  and 
makes  the  best  of  masts. 


Pitch  Pine  : 

This  tree  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  above  by 
its  leaves,  which  grow  in 
threes, by  its  irregular  gro^Hh, 
and  by  its  very  rough  bark. 
Its  wood  is  much  harder 
than  the  Avhite  pine,  and 
therefore  better  for  floors. 
Its  branches,  the  pine  knots 
of  commerce,  are  full  of  resin. 
Like  the  scrub  pine  of  Xew 
Jersey,  it  will  grow  in  bar- 
ren, sandy  soil,  where  noth- 


Red   or  Norway   Pine,   branch  and 
cone. 


Pitch  Pine,  branch  and  cone. 

ing  else  can  flourish.  The 
scrub  pine  has  its  green 
leaves  in  twos. 

The  Red  Pine  : 

Its  green  leaves  are  in 
twos.  Its  bark  is  not 
nearly  so  rough  as  that  of 
the  pitch  pine,  and  is  in 
rather  broad  scales  of  red- 
dish color. 

The  most  valuable  pine 
of  all  is  the  long-leaved 
southern  pine,  young  trees 


112 


NATURE   STUDY 


of  which  are  brought  into  our  markets  about  Christinas 
time.  Its  green  leaves  are  in  groups  of  three,  and  are 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  "pine  wool,"  from  which 
cord  and  cloth  are  made.  Its  wood  is  extremely  beau- 
tiful, hard,  and  of  a  lovely  yellow  color.  From  it  are 
also  obtained  turpentine,  tar,  resin,  and  oil. 

Method : 

If  possible,  take  the  children  where  they  can  see  pine 
trees  growing.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  a  picture  of  the 
tree  and  some  branches  may  be  made  to  answer  the 
purpose. 

A\Tiat  is  the  shape  of  the  tree  ?  Why  ?  How  are  the 
branches  arranged  ?  If  there  is  a  circle  of  branches  for 
each  year,  how  old  is  this  tree  ? 
What  has  become  of  the  lower 
branches  ?  Why  have  they  dis- 
appeared rather  than  the  upper 
ones  ? 

What  is  the  color  of  the  bark  ? 
\Vliat  do  you  find  underneath  the 
bark  ?  What  does  it  smell  like  ? 
Why  ? 

How  are  its  leaves  different 
from  other  leaves  that  you  have 
studied  ?  AVhat  advantage  is 
that  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  each 
leaf  ?  Why  ?  Do  the  leaves  never  fall  ?  How  do  you 
know  ?  What  do  the  cones  contain  ?  Why  are  they  now 
closed  ?  When  will  they  open  ?  AVhy  ?  What  does  the 
seed  look  like  ?     Of  what  use  is  the  wing  ? 

What  use  is  the  tree  to  us  ?  How  is  turpentine  made  ? 
pitch?  tar? 


Hemlock,  branch  and  cone. 


DECEMBER 


113 


Hemlock  : 

This  is  the  most  graceful  of  the  evergreens,  because  of 
its  drooping,  feathery  boughs.  Its  leaves  are  flat,  dark, 
lustrous  green  above,  white  underneath,  and  arranged  on 
both  sides  of  the  branch,  which,  in  consequence,  has  a 
flat  appearance.  For  this  reason  they  make  good  brooms, 
and  have  often  been  used  for  this  purpose  by  New  Eng- 
land housewives.  It  attains  its  greatest  beauty  in  the 
spring,  when  it  is  covered  with  tassels  of  pale  green 
leaves.  Its  cones  are  small.  Its  bark,  mixed  with  that 
of  the  oak,  is  used  for  tanning.  «^ 


Arbor  Vit.e  : 

This   tree   resembles  the  white 
cedar.     Its  wood  is  aromatic,  and 
its  leaves  are  different  from  the 
evergreens  above  men- 
tioned in  that  the}-  are 
flat  and  scale-like. 


Arbor  Vitas,  branch  and  cone. 


Balsam  Fir  : 

This  tree  is  the 
most  commonly  used 
for  Christmas.  It  can 
easily  be  distinguished 
from  the  spruce  by  the 
blunt  ends  of  its  leaves,  and  by  the  fact  that  they  are 
arranged  only  on  the  two  opposite  sides  of  the  branch, 
making  it  flat  instead  of  cylindrical,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  spruce.  It  is  very  aromatic.  From  its  leaves  are 
made  balsam  pillows.  The  tree  has,  until  it  grows  old, 
a  smooth  bark.  It  is  regular  in  shape.  It  has  a  whorl 
of  five  branches  for  each  year's  growth.     Numerous  large 


114 


NATURE    STUDY 


cones  add  to  its  beauty.     Its  balsam  ((Janada  balsam)  is 
of  commercial  importance,  but  its  wood  has  no  value. 


Balsam  Fir,  branch  and  cone. 


Red  Spruce,  branch  and  cone. 


Spruce : 

The  peculiarities  of  this  tree  are  sufficiently  indicated 
in  the  above  account,  and  in  the  cut. 

Its  wood  makes  valuable  lumber.  Spruce  gum  found 
on  the  bark,  and  spruce  beer  made  from  the  roots,  are 
seldom  seen  outside  of  Xew  England. 

Holly  : 

Although  the  leaf  of  our  American  holly  has  not  the 
gloss  of  its  English  cousin,  nor  are  its  berries  quite  so 
plentiful,  yet  it  is  a  very  beautiful  substitute. 


DECEMBER  115 

Its  white  flowers  come  in  May.  Its  brilliant  red  ber- 
ries donbtless  serve  to  attract  animals  and  lead  them  to 
distribute  its  seed,  while  its  thorny  leaves  must  certainly 
protect  the  little  tree  from  unwelcome  visitors.  Its  use 
at  Christmas  is  doubtless  due  to  its  beauty  and  the  ever- 
green character  of  its  leaves.  It  has  been  said,  however, 
to  keep  off  witches  by  reason  of  its  holiness,  a  quality  to 
Avhich  its  name  is  popularly  supposed  to  be  due. 

Mistletoe  : 

Like  the  holly,  the  English  mistletoe  is  much  more 
beautiful  than  its  American  cousin.  Both  mistletoes  are 
partial  parasites,  taking  from  the  wood  of  the  host  crude 
sap.  This  is  made  into  elaborated  food  in  the  green 
leaves  of  the  plant.  Each  of  the  numerous  white  pulpy 
berries  contains  a  single  seed,  which,  perhaps,  is  distributed 
by  birds  in  their  excreta,  or  rubbed  off  against  the  tree 
by  the  bill  of  birds,  who  care  only  for  the  flesh  of  the 
fruit.  The  use  of  the  mistletoe  at  Christmas  is  doubtless 
due  to  the  high  esteem  in  which  it  was  held  by  the 
Druids,  whose  priests,  dressed  in  white,  cut  it  from  the  oak 
or  apple  Avith  a  golden  sickle,  and  distributed  it  to  the 
people  with  great  ceremony.  Once  thus  obtained,  it  was 
supposed  to  be  a  heal-all  and  a  charm  against  disaster. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
its  berries,  in  groups  of  three,  —  a  sacred  number,  —  may 
have  had  something  to  do  Avith  the  high  regard  in  which 
it  Avas  held.  ]\Iore  likely  this  was  due  rather  to  its 
peculiar  method  of  growth  and  the  appearance  of  life 
Avhich  it  gave  to  the  apparently  dead  trees  of  Avinter. 

Methods  : 

Sufficient  suggestions  were  given  under  the  Pine. 


116  NATURE   STUDY 


LITERATURE 

Myths  and  Stories: 

Death  of  Baldur  (Mistletoe). 

Law  of  the  Wood  (Spruce),  Parables  from  Nature,  Mrs.  Gatty. 

The  Fir  Tree,  Andersen. 

The  Last  Dream  of  the  Old  Oak,  Andersen. 

The  Discontented  Pine  Tree,  Marah  Pratt's  Fairy  Land  of  Flowers 

Easy  Poems  : 

Christmas  Eve,  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life  is  Young. 
Hemlock  Tree  (first  verse),  Longfellow. 

More  Difficult  Poems  : 

Pine  Needles,         ^ 

Little  Pine  Tree,  \  ^        •     ,    -kt  .        •     tt- 
,^  ,,  \  Loveioy's  Nature  m  Verse. 

Holly,  j 

Three  Trees,  J 

Under  the  Holly  Boughs,  Eric  Mackay. 

Hiawatha's  Sailing,  Longfellow. 

ANIMALS 
The  Aquarium  : 

An  aquarium  properly  cared  for  and  intelligently  used 
is  not  only  an  object  of  beauty  in  the  schoolroom,  but 
also  an  efficient  aid  in  nature  work.  Unfortunately 
uncared  for  and  unused  aquaria  are  the  rule;  but  this  is 
not  because  there  is  any  real  difficulty  in  so  establishing 
the  proper  balance  between  the  plant  and  animal  life 
that  the  tank  is  self-regulating.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a 
perfectly  simple  thing  to  have  a  healthy,  beautiful  aqua- 
rium, which  needs  no  care  from  year's  end  to  year's  end, 
except  to  feed  the  fish  and  occasionally  to  replenish  the 
evaporated  water. 


DECEMBER 

These  are  the  essentials : 

1. 

A  glass  globe 

or  jar. 

2. 

River  sand. 

3. 

Water  plants. 

4. 

Cold  water. 

5. 

Light. 

6. 

Animals. 

117 


1.  The  size  or  the  shape  of  the  aquarium  is  a  mat- 
ter of  taste.  The  oblongs  are  more  beautiful,  perhaps, 
but  they  are  also  much  more  expensive,  a  medium  size 
costing  from  two  to  three  dollars.  A  cylindrical  vessel 
holding  five  gallons,  worth  about  a  dollar  and  a  quarter, 
would  be  an  excellent  choice. 

2.  The  sand  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  repeated 
washings.  There  should  be  two  inches  of  sand  covering 
the  bottom  of  a  five-gallon  tank,  for  Avhich  also  two 
bunches  of  Cabomba  or  Myriophyllum  will  be  sufficient 
plants. 

3.  The  lead  should  be  removed  from  the  plants,  and 
the  leaves  broken  from  the  stem  for  an  inch  from  the 
base.  Plant  securely  in  the  sand,  preferably  in  the  tAvo 
rear  corners. 

4.  Cold,  clear  water  should  be  poured  into  the  aqua- 
rium. Neither  plants  nor  sand  will  be  disturbed  if  the 
force  of  the  falling  water  is  broken  by  letting  it  fall  first 
over  the  hand. 

5.  The  aquarium  should  be  permanently  placed  where 
it  gets,  if  possible,  good  northern  light.  In  a  few  days 
the  water  will  be  crystal  clear,  thoroughly  aerated,  ready 
for  the  animals. 

6.  Healthy  American  gold  and  silver  fish  cost  a  little 
more,  but  they  are  much  hardier  than  the  German  fish, 


118  NATURE   STUDY 

which  are  so  abundant  at  ten  cents  each,  and  so  seldom 
worth  buying.  The  latter  are  very  apt  to  be  consump- 
tive, and,  indeed,  are  frequently  sold  w'hen  in  the  last 
stages  of  consumption.  A  dorsal  hump  back  of  the  head, 
ventral  flatness,  and  rather  frayed-out  fins  are  sure  indi- 
cations of  the  disease. 

The  fish  should  not  be  too  large  nor  too  numerous.  If 
you  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  good  northern  exposure, 
and  if  the  room  is  not  overheated,  a  dozen  medium-sized 
fish  will  not  be  too  many  in  a  five-gallon  aquarium. 

Young  minnows,  dace,  black-banded  sunfish,  may  he 
safely  placed  with  gold  fish,  as  well  as  tadpoles,  snails, 
and  mussels.  Eels,  sunnies,  catfish,  mud  minnows,  cray- 
fish, beetles,  must  be  cared  for  separately. 

It  is  better  to  keep  a  few  gold  fish  first,  experimenting 
later  with  the  less  hardy  but  more  interesting  kinds. 
Snails,  tadpoles,  and  mussels,  however,  do  not  complicate 
the  feeding,  and  do  add  variety. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pond  snails,  —  those  which 
breathe  by  means  of  lungs,  Limnea  -(large),  Physa 
(small),  and  those  which  breathe  by  gills,  Paludina  (large). 
The  large  species  cost  sometimes  five  cents  each,  while 
for  the  same  sum  a  dozen  of  the  smaller  ones  may  be 
purchased.  For  teaching  purposes,  Limnea  is  particu- 
larly valuable,  but  it  cuts  up  the  plants. 

Mussels  and  tadpoles  are  cheap.  Tadpoles  bought 
now  are  not  likely  to  develop  much  more  until  spring. 
Feeding  them  on  raw^-scraped  beef,  and  keeping  them  in 
a  warm  room,  often  hastens  the  process. 

Feed  every  other  day.  A  piece  of  the  prepared  fish 
food  two  inches  square  ought  to  be  sufficient  for  a  dozen 
medium-sized  gold  fish.  Snails,  mussels,  and  tadpoles  do 
not  require  special  feeding.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  give  all 


DECEMBER 


119 


the  animals  once  a  week  a  very  little  scraped  beef,  but 
great  care  must  be  exercised  to  remove  the  undevoured 
food. 

With  a  sponge,  keep  the  outside  and  inside  of  the 
aquarium  clean.  The  water  in  evaporating  is  apt  to 
leave  an  ugly  white  line,  which,  however,  may  easily  be 
removed.  The  water  should  be  replenished  from  time 
to  time,  pouring  it  over  the  hand,  as  before,  to  break  the 
force  of  its  descent. 

If  the  animals  die,  it  is  because  they  were  diseased  in 
the  first  place,  or  because  the  aquarium  gets  too  little 
light,  or  because  food  is  allowed  to  decay,  or  because  the 
room  is  kept  too  hot  for  either  fish  or  children.  If  the 
water  becomes  quickly  green,  it  is  because  the  aquarium 
receives  too  much  light. 


Lateral 
Lime  . 


5TFIL-, 


Mouth 


Fish. 

Facts : 

The  external  anatomy  of  the  fish  is  probably  sufficiently- 
indicated  by  the  cut.  The  arm  and  leg  fins,  so  named 
from  their  homology  to  our  own  legs  and  arms,  are  paired. 
All  of  the  other  fiiis  are  single.  In  some  of  the  lower 
fish  and  in  some  embryos,  the  back,  tail,  and  anal  fins  are 


120  NATURE   STUDY 

united  in  one.  The  arm  and  leg  fins  do  the  swimming, 
while  the  steering  is  done  by  the  muscular  tail  and  the 
tail  fin. 

To  understand  clearly  the  breathing  of  fish,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  teacher  to  understand  the  breathing  of  plants. 
This  function  is  properly  called  respiration  in  plants  as 
well  as  in  animals,  because  in  both  the  outward  visible 
sign  is  the  same,  viz.,  the  giving  off  of  carbon  dioxide. 
Respiration  in  the  case  of  plants  is  continually  taking 
place,  but  under  certain  conditions  more  than  enough 
oxygen  is  given  off  to  mask  completely  the  breathing. 
These  conditions  are  the  assimilation  of  the  food  which 
is  brought  about  by  the  presence  of  some  carbon  dioxide 
and  strong  light.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  breathed  out  by 
both  fish  and  plants. 

Now  it  follows  that  an  aquarium  with  plants,  light, 
and  animals  can  be  made  self-supporting,  since  in  the 
light  the  plants  yield  what  the  fish  must  have  in  abun- 
dance for  their  respiration,  while  the  fish  give  in  return 
the  carbon  dioxide  necessary  to  the  assimilation  of  the 
plants.  In  breathing,  the  fish  swallows  the  water  oxy- 
genated by  the  plants.  As  it  is  washed  past  its  four 
pairs  of  red  gills,  an  osmosis  of  the  two  gases — the  car- 
bon dioxide  of  the  blood  and  the  free  oxygen  in  the  water 
—  takes  place.  The  blood  is  thiis  purified,  and  the  water 
charged  with  carbon  dioxide  passes  out  under  the  gill 
covers,  carrying  to  the  plant  what  it  needs  for  its  food, 
and  receiving  from  it  again  the  oxygen  necessary  to  all 
the  animals  in  the  aquarium. 

The  nostrils  of  the  gold  fish  are  well  developed  and 
easily  seen.  In  them  is  located  the  sense  of  smell.  They 
take  no  part  in  the  work  of  breathing. 

The  eyes  are  movable,  but  unprotected  by  lids. 


DECEJIBER  121 

In  the  lateral  line  are  located  sense  organs,  whose 
exact  function  is  not  as  yet  satisfactorily  determined. 
The  appearance  is  due  to  the  perforation  of  the  scales  in 
that  region. 

The  whole  body  of  the  fish  is  covered"  with  a  skin, 
underneath  which  are  the  numerous  protecting  scales,  all 
of  which  point  backward  —  one  of  the  many  adaptations 
of  the  parts  of  the  fish  to  forward  movement. 

The  viscera  are  all  situated  in  a  body  cavity  in  the 
lower  forward  part  of  the  body.  All  the  rest  of  the  fish 
(except,  of  course,  the  head)  is  made  up  of  bone  and 
muscle. 

Many  fish  are  so  transparent  that  it  is  quite  easy  to 
make  out  the  much-coiled  intestine,  and  above  it  the 
silvery  air  bladder,  which  helps  to  keep  it  afloat. 

Method  : 

Lead  the  children  to  observe  the  breathing,  eating,  and 
motion  of  the  fish  by  watching  and  feeding  the  animals 
before  and  after  school. 

Give  each  child  a  piece  of  paper  and  tell  her  to  write  a 
sentence,  telling  the  number  of  fins  which  the  gold  fish 
has. 

Invariably  they  say  five. 

Give  to  each  a  hektograph  drawing  telling  them  that 
they  may  reconsider  their  answer. 

Send  to  the  aquarium  those  who  do  not  yet  see  that 
with  the  two  pairs  of  paired  fins  there  are  altogether 
seven  fins. 

Teach  them  the  names  of  the  fins. 

Give  them,  a  few  at  a  time,  such  questions  as  these  to 
be  answered  by  observation:  Of  what  use  is  the  tail  to 
the   fish?      Which  fins   are   most   used   in   swimming? 


122 


NATURE    STUDY 


Why  does  the  fish  open  his  mouth  continually  when  he 
is  not  eating  ?     What  else  opens  as  frequently  ?     Why  ? 

With  the  drawings,  teach  nostrils,  mouth,  gill  covers, 
scales,  lateral  line,  straightening  out  at  the  same  time 
their  ideas  of  the  functions  of  these  organs. 

Teach  the  elimination  of  the  waste  food,  which  is  very 
evident  in  the  gold  fish. 

Tadpole. 
Facts : 

The  tadpole  is  the  larval  form  of  a  frog  or  toad,  re- 


Eyt. 


hojTRlL-,., 


sembling  its  fishlike  ancestor  much  more  than  its  pro- 
spective adult  form. 


DECEMBER  1 28 

Like  the  fish,  it  breathes  by  means  of  gills  and  lives  in 
the  water,  but  it  has  no  fins  and  only  one  breathing  hole, 
which  is  on  the  left  side  of  the  body. 

From  the  gelatinous  spawn  of  the  frog  is  hatched  out 
a  tiny  fishlike  creature  Avith  rudiments  of  gills  and  with 
two  disks  on  the  head  by  which  it  clingi-  to  plants.  Then 
the  three  pairs  of  external  gills  develop.  At  their  roots 
are  narrow  clefts,  which  lead  into  the  throat,  out  of  which 
conies  the  water  taken  in  by  the  mouth.  A  fold  of  the 
skin  grows  over  the  gills,  leaving  only  a  small  opening 
on  the  left  side,  through  which  they  protrude  for  a  time. 
They  soon  atrophy,  however,  and  are  succeeded  by  in- 
ternal gills.  In  the  meantime,  the  eyes,  the  nose  (two 
nostrils  in  front  of  the  eyes),  the  ears  (circular  patches 
back  of  the  eyes),  become  distinct.  The  tadpole  eats 
with  a  lip  beset  with  numerous  horny  papillae  surround- 
ing the  mouth.  The  intestine  is  very  long  and  coiled  like 
a  watch  spring. 

The  hind  legs  are  first  visible.  With  the  growth  of 
the  legs,  the  tail  shortens,  the  mouth  elongates,  the  lip 
disappears,  teeth  develop  in  the  upper  jaw  and  on  the  roof 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  animal  gives  up  its  mixed  diet, 
preferring  chiefly  insects. 

The  adult  frog  breathes  by  means  of  his  skin,  as  well 
as  by  his  lungs.  It  is  necessary  for  his  lung  respiration 
that  his  mouth  should  be  closed.  The  air  is  drawn  in 
through  the  nostrils,  which  then  close,  while  the  under 
side  of  the  throat  is  swollen,  then  flattened  out,  as  the 
air  is  expelled. 

There  is  a  pair  of  lymph  hearts,  which  may  be  ob- 
served to  pulsate  near  the  end  and  on  either  side  of  the 
back  bone. 

The  fore  legs  are  much  shorter  than  the  hind  legs. 


124  NATURE   STUDY 

They  each  have  four  toes,  which  correspond  to  our  four 
fingers.     The  hind  legs  are  live  toed  and  webbed. 

The  male  has  a  vocal  sac,  by  means  of  which,  particu- 
larly in  the  spring,  he  gives  his  loye  croak.  The  tongue 
in  both  sexes  is  two  forked,  and  attached  to  the  middle 
part  of  the  jaw  by  its  forward  end. 

The  eggs  of  a  toad  occur  in  strings.  The  toad  tadpole 
is  black,  much  smaller,  and  develops  more  quickly  into 
the  adult  form  than  the  tadpole  of  the  frog. 

Method  : 

Is  the  tadpole  a  fish  ?     Why  ? 

So  far  as  appearances  go,  there  are  good  arguments,  to 
the  mind  of  the  child,  on  both  sides.  The  mental  disci- 
pline involved  in  weighing  the  evidence  and  settling  the 
question  is  very  valuable,  particularly  when  he  is  subse- 
quently required  to  state  sharply  and  clearly  the  resem- 
blances and  differences  between  the  embryonic  frog  and 
the  adult  fish.  If  children  have  already  witnessed  the 
metamorphosis  of  the  tadpole,  review  the  facts  with  indi- 
vidual drawings.  Otherwise,  wait  until  spring,  when  this 
wonderful  change  is  sure  to  occur  in  the  schoolroom. 

Snail. 
Facts  : 

Observe  in  the  living  animal  the  brown  skin  with  the 
limy  shell  underneath.  The  sutures,  the  whorls,  the 
spire,  the  apex,  the  body  whorl,  the  lines  of  growth, 
the  mouth,  the  operculum,  the  foot,  the  eyes,  the  tenta- 
cles, the  mantle,  are  all  shown  in  the  drawings. 

Limnea  is  an  example  of  a  lung-breathing  pond  snail, 
and,  like  other  lung  breathers,  keeps  the  surface  of  the 
water  clean.     The  snail  ascends  at  fairly  regular  inter- 


DECEMBER 


125 


vals,  forces  out  a  bubble  of  air,  and  takes  in  a  fresh 
supply.  Both  sexes  are  united  in  the  one  animal,  and 
the  semi-transparent  eggs,  laid  in  gelatinous  masses,  are 


BrEatming  HOLt. 


fENTACU. 


BoDy  Whorl. 


Apex 


LUMG 


jEMTACLt 


MOUTH- 


Limnea,  a  lung-breather. 


to  be  found  on  the  plants  in  the  aquarium  or  along  the 
sides.  In  dry  or  cold  weather  it  protects  itself  by  secret- 
ing a  membrane  which  covers  the  opening. 


126 


NATURE   STUDY 


Of  the  smaller  air-breathing  pond  snails,  Physa  is  a 
good  example. 

Paludina  is  a  gill-breathing  poiid  snail.  The  water  is 
conveyed  to  the  gills  by  a  tube  on  the  right,  and  is  then 
forced  out  of  the  tube  on  the  left.  The  proboscis  is  well 
developed.  The  eyes  at  the  base  of  the  tentacles  are  borne 
on  small  projections.    The  young  are  brought  forth  alive, 


Ehtrance.. 
10  GiLtj 


OPERCULUM. 


Paludina,  a  gilJ-breather. 


the  eggs  developing  inside  of  the  mother.  Only  the 
gill-breathing  forms  have  an  operculum.  "  Eye  stones  " 
are  small  lime  opercula.  Land  snails  have  two  pairs 
of  tentacles.  On  the  longer  of  these  are  borne  the  eyes, 
which  can  be  invaginated.  Land  snails  are  found  wher- 
ever there  is  lime  and  moisture.  They  both  breathe  and 
protect  themselves  from  cold  and  dryness,  like  Limnea. 
To  this  genus  (Helix)  belong  the  edible  snails. 


DECEMBER  127 

Slugs  are  nocturnal  lung-breathers,  who  do  much 
damage  in  gardens.  The  saddle  is  all  that  is  left  to 
represent  the  mantle.  There  is  an  opening  on  the 
right  side  which  admits  air.  Underneath  the  mantle  is 
usually  a  small  horny  disk. 

Methods  : 

How  do  the  snails  reach  the  top  of  the  water  ?  How 
often  does  Limnea  come  to  the  top  ?     Why  ? 

^Miat  does  the  snail  eat  ?     How  ? 

How  does  the  snail  move  ? 

Distribute  the  empty  shells.  Let  the  children  scrape 
off  the  brown  skin  and  test  with  strong  vinegar  the 
shell  beneath.  The  effervescence  proves  that  it  consists 
of  lime  carlionate. 

AVhat  good  to  the  shell  is  the  brown  skin  ?  What  has 
happened  to  the  tip  where  the  skin  has  worn  off  ? 

With  hektograph  or  blackboard  drawings,  teach  the 
parts  of  the  animal.  Land  snails  and  slugs  may  be  simi- 
larly treated,  or  may  be  omitted,  or  taught  by  letting 
the  children  read  about  them. 

^luSSELS. 

Facts  : 

The  mussels  of  the  aquarium  are  really  fresh-Avater 
clams. 

The  parts  of  the  animal  are  sufficiently  indicated  in 
the  drawings  on  the  next  page. 

To  the  crawling  action  of  the  foot  are  due  the  long 
tracks  so  often  seen  in  the  sand. 

The  pearly  lining  of  the  shell  is  very  beautiful  and 
one  of  the  sources  of  domestic  mother-of-pearl. 

The  young  of  the  mussel  are  stored  away  in  the  gill 


128 


NATURE   STUDY 


chamber  for  a  time.  Then  they  attach  themselves  to 
the  tins  of  fish,  and,  after  a  semi-parasitic  existence, 
drop  to  the  sand  small  adult  mussels. 


BEAK, 


FOOT  'LINE  OFGROWTft. 

TEETH.  ^EAK.         LIGAMENT. 


^^.jamiiiiillHiniinn' 


'MANTLE    LIME. 

Keading  and  language  lessons  on  the  oyster  and  clam 
will  be  particularly  valuable  after  the  lessons  on  the 
mussel. 

LITERATURE 

Neptune. 

Hiawatha's  Fishing. 
Water  Babies,  Kingsley. 

The  Readers,  particularly  Johonnot's,  are  full  of  interesting 
accounts  of  fish,  frogs,  snails,  and  mussels. 


CHAPTER   V 


JANUARY 


New  Year  Myths  and  Stories : 

Kronos. 

Janus. 

Story  of  the  T^ar,  Ander- 
sen. 

Little  Match  Seller,  An- 
dersen. 

A  New  Year's  Bargain, 
Susan  Coolidge. 

Poems  : 

The  Little  New  Year, 
Walker's  Songs  and  Games. 

January,  Alice  Gary. 

A  New  Year's  Greeting, 
Lowell. 

A  New  Year,  Mrs. 
Dodge's  When  Life  is  Young. 

A  Suggestion  for  a  Happy  New  Year,  "i  Mrs.  Dodge's  Wlien  Life 

In  Trust,  /     is  Young. 

New  Year  Song,  Lucy  Larcom. 


Head  of  Janus. 


WEATHER 

In  the  examination  of  the  weather  record  for  Decem- 
ber, the  chiklren  will  have  a  new  problem.     Instead  of 
questions   to   be    answered,  there  is  now  a   column   in 
which  they  are  to  make  a  general  summary  of  their  ob- 
K  129 


130  NATURE    STUDY 

servations  for  the  month.  Before  allowing  them  to 
write  this,  conduct  an  oral  discussion  on  generalizations 
with  which  they  are  already  familiar,  such  as  the  pre- 
vailing direction  and  force  of  the  wind  and  cloud  forms. 
After  these  facts  have  been  determined  and  written  up, 
teach  them  to  summarize  the  temperature  in  the  same 
way  by  determining  the  average  temperature  for  the 
month,  the  temperature  of  the  coldest  and  of  the  Avarm- 
est  day,  -which  winds  caused  a  fall  in  temperature,  which 
a  rise.  This  will  necessitate  in  most  instances  teaching 
them  w^hat  is  meant  by  an  average,  and  how  it  is  found, 
much  earlier  than  the  course  in  arithmetic  provides. 

In  the  keeping  of  January's  w^eather  record,  provision 
should  be  made  for  recording  the  rain  or  snow  fall  in 
inches.  The  standard  rain  gauge  used  by  the  United 
States  government  costs  five  dollars.  It  is  a  cylindrical 
can,  so  planned  that  the  amount  of  the  rainfall  is  multi- 
plied by  ten. 

If  this  instrument  is  too  expensive,  the  main  purpose 
may  be  served  by  using  a  tin  can  with  a  sharp,  even  rim, 
and,  in  place  of  the  graduated  cedar  stick  which  comes 
with  the  official  gauge,  an  unvarnished  stick,  with  the 
tenths  of  inches  marked  upon  it. 

Whatever  the  instrument,  it  should  be  placed  in  an 
open  space,  and  the  children  should  see  wdiy  this  is 
essential. 

Snow  is  melted  before  measuring. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  get  the  whole  snowfall.  Perhaps 
as  accurate  a  way  as  any  is  to  cut  out  wdth  the  inverted 
can  a  circular  section  of  the  snow.  Melt  and  measure 
this.  Of  course  a  place  must  be  selected  where  the  snow 
has  not  drifted. 

The   teacher  should  get  for  her  ow^n   use   the   daily 


JANUARY  131 

weather  map  sent  out  by  the  government,  and   to   be 
had  on  application  to  the  Local  Weather  Bureau. 

PHYSICS 
Evaporation,  Boiling,  and  Condensation. 

Facts : 

Under  the  influence  of  heat,  Avater  evaporates,  that  is 
to  say,  it  passes  into  the  air  in  the  form  of  invisible 
vapor.  The  greater  the  heat,  the  greater  the  surface 
exposure ;  and  the  stronger  the  wind,  the  more  rapid 
will  be  the  evaporation. 

In  boiling,  the  first  bubbles  that  are  formed  contain 
air.  They  break  quietly.  Soon,  however,  numerous 
small  bubbles  are  formed  at  the  bottom  and  middle  of 
the  dish  which  break  explosively,  increasing  in  size  as 
they  reach  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Immediately  above  the  water,  or  close  to  the  spout 
of  a  teakettle,  no  steam  can  be  seen;  but  just  as  soon 
as  this  true  steam  comes  in  contact  with  the  colder  air 
outside,  it  is  condensed  into  water  dust  and  becomes 
visible.  The  temperature  of  the  water  and  of  the  steam 
does  not  vary  after  boiling  is  Avell  under  wa}',  although 
of  course  the  fire  underneath  becomes  hotter  and 
hotter.  This  extra  heat  causes  the  water  to  break  up 
more  rapidly. 

Whenever  water  vapor  comes  in  contact  with  a  colder 
solid,  the  water  condenses  on  that  solid. 

Method : 

Why  do  we  add  water  to  the  aquarium  ?  Where  does 
the  water  go?  Can  we  see  it?  From  which  would  it 
disappear  more  quickly,  a  deep  dish  or  a  shallow  one? 
How  shall  we  find  out  ? 


132  NATURE   STUDY 

Set  up  the  experiment  in  accordance  with  their  direc- 
tions. 

If  the  children  do  not  know  that  the  water  passes  into 
the  air,  write  on  the  blackboard  with  a  wet  sponge,  or 
wring  out  and  hang  up  to  dry  a  piece  of  cloth,  etc.,  and 
let  them  watch  the  drying. 

Do  clothes  dry  more  rapidly  in  winter  or  in  summer? 
When  the  air  is  still  or  in  a  wind? 

Why  did  the  water  evaporate  more  quickly  in  the 
shallow  dish  than  in  the  deeper  one  ?  How  can  we  find 
out  certainly  whether  heat  and  wind  hasten  evaporation  ? 

Set  up  the  experiments  in  accordance  with  their  direc- 
tions. In  these,  as  in  all  other  experiments,  the  teacher 
must  see  that  the  children  eliminate  all  unequal  condi- 
tions. For  example,  the  volumes  of  water  in  the  two 
dishes  must  be  equal ;  the  remaining  volumes  must  be 
exactly  measured;  when  experimenting  with  tempera- 
ture both  dishes  must  be  protected  from  currents  of 
air,  and  vice  versa. 

By  means  of  a  spirit  lamp,  or  a  Bunsen  burner,  Avater 
may  be  made  to  boil  in  a  kettle  or  dish  with  a  spout 
in  the  presence  of  the  seated  children.  Lead  them  to 
see  that  the  steam  is  invisible  near  the  spout,  and  that 
a  flame  held  below  the  steam  beyond  makes  it  invisible 
again. 

Tell  them  to  boil  some  water  in  a  shallow  dish  on  the 
stove  at  home,  and  to  bring  you  the  answers  to  the  fol- 
lowing questions:  What  happens  just  before  the  water 
begins  to  boil?  Where  do  the  bubbles  form?  Where 
are  they  largest  ? 

Send  them  all  to  the  blackboard.  Let  them  touch  it 
with  their  Angers.  Is  it  warmer  or  colder  ?  Let  them 
breathe  on  it.     What  has  happened  ?     Where  did  the 


JANUARY  133 

moisture  come  from  ?  What  happens  to  our  breath  on 
a  cold  day  ?  Bring  a  pitcher  of  ice  water  into  the  room. 
What  has  happened  ?  Let  some  one  breathe  on  the  cold 
window  pane.  What  has  happened  ?  Hold  a  cold  slate 
above  boiling  water.  What  happens  to  spectacles  in 
going  from  the  cold  into  a  warm  room  ? 

Which  is  colder,  your  breath  or  the  blackboard  ? 
Your  breath  or  the  cold  air  ?  The  air  of  the  room  or 
the  pitcher  ?  YQur  breath  or  the  window  pane  ?  The 
slate  or  the  steam  ?  The  air  of  the  room  or  the  glass  of 
the  spectacles  ? 

When  only  does  the  air  give  up  its  moisture  ?  On 
what  is  this  moisture  deposited  ? 

Plants  : 

If  there  was  not  sufficient  time  in  December  for  the 
study  of  the  commoner  evergreens,  continue  their  study 
in  January.  If  possible,  begin  in  this  month  the  study 
of  the  germination  of  seeds.' 

Germination  of  Seeds  : 

Facts : 

Usually  seeds  will  not  germinate  until  they  are  per- 
suaded that  winter  has  passed  and  gone  and  that  spring 
has  really  come.  To  make  them  believe  this  they  must 
be  given  plenty  of  moisture  and  warmth.  Water  softens 
the  food  stored  round  or  in  the  baby  plant  by  its  provi- 
dent mother,  allows  the  ferment  to  act  Avhich  changes  it 
into  food  immediately  available  for  growth,  viz.,  sugar. 

The  first  visible  phenomenon  of  germination  is  the 
absorption  of  water  and  consequent  swelling  of  the  seed. 
Then  the  coat  is  broken  by  the  radicle,  which  is  pointed 
at  the  tip  that  it  may  more  easily  penetrate  the  ground. 


134 


NATURE    STUDY 


The  subsequent  phenomena  vary  with  the  seed  used. 
The  following  drawings,  made  by  a  student  of  mine  in  the 
Xormal  School,  show  Avhat  any  observant  person  may  see 


Dec,  16 


Dec.  20 


Germination  of  Pea 


Dec.  27 


in  the  pea, 
squash,  beau, 
corn,  and  pea- 
nut. 

Observe 
that  in  the 
pea  the  pri- 
mary roots 

become  speedily  much  branched, 
thus  anchoring  it  more  securely 
in  the  ground,  and  furnishing 
it  with  more  mouths  to  take  in 
food.  The  stem  is  hooked  at 
the  tip,  where  are  located  ten- 
der, green,  leaf-like  bodies. 
This  hooking  is  protective. 
Darwin  graphically  describes 
the  arching  and  subsequent  straightening  thus  :  "  It  may 
be  convenient  to  summarize,  under  the  form  of  an  illustra- 
tion, the  usual  movements  of  seedlings  whilst  breaking 


JANUARY 


135 


GREEN    TIP  ._ 
ABOVE    SURFACE 


AT  THIS  STAGE  I   DISCOVERED 

WHICH  SHOOT  VMS  ROOT 
AND  WHICH  WAS  PLUMULE. 
THUS  THE  REVERSION  IN 
DRAWING. 


IN  REPLANTING 
THE  SPECIMEN, 
THE  STEM  BROKE. 
ANOTHER  SPECI- 
MEN WAS  SUB- 
STITUTED WHICH 
ACCOUNTS  FOR 
THE  DIFFERENCE 
IN  ROOTS,  ETC. 


Jan.  14 


Jan.  17 


Jan.  10 


TIP    IS 

DRYING   UP 


Jan.  22 

Germination  of  Corn  Grain. 


136 


NATUKE   STUDY 


NOURISHMENT 

._  SCUTELLUM 
...  COTYLEDON 
—    PLUMULE 


Grain  of  Corn  dissected. 


through  the  ground  and  immediately  afterwards.  We 
may  suppose  a  man  to  be  thrown  down  on  his  hands  and 
knees,  and  at  the  same  time  to  one  side,  by  a  load  of  hay 
falling  on  him.     He  would  first  endeavor  to  get  his  arched 

back  upright,  wriggling  at 
the  same  time  in  all  direc- 
tions to  free  himself  a  little 
from  the  surrounding  pres- 
sure. The  man,  still  wrig- 
gling, would  then  raise  his 
arched  back  as  high  as  he 
could.  As  soon  as  he  felt  himself  at  all  free,  he  would 
raise  the  upper  part  of  his  body,  whilst  still  on  his  knees 
and  still  wriggling." 

The  corn  differs  from  the  pea  in  that  its  one  cotyledon 
comes  above  ground  instead  of  remaining  buried  under- 
neath, like  the  two  cotyledons  of  the  pea.  This  cotyle- 
don, or  sheath,  protects  the  bud  within,  until  its  stiff  and 
sharp  point  has  pierced  the  ground.  For  this  reason  the 
branch  is  not  arched, 
as  is  the  case  in  the 
pea.  "'"""'' 

Instead  of  having 
only  a  single  branched 
primary  root,  it  has 
also  several  secondary 
roots  that  remain  un- 
branched  for  some 
time. 

The  leaves  of  the  wheat  are  parallel  veined ;  those  of 
the  pea,  netted  veined.  The  former  is  the  characteristic 
of  almost  all  monocotyledonous  plants ;  the  latter  is  true 
of  all  the  dicotyledonous. 


COTYLEDON   


Bean,  showing  embryo. 


JANUARY 


137 


Jan.  13 


Jan.  17 


Jan.  25 


Germination  of  a  Bean. 


138 


NATURE    STUDY 


The  squash  gets  rid  of  its  thick  seed  coats  in  a  pecul- 
iar manner.  On  the  root  is  formed  a  peg,  which  as  it 
grows  pushes  open  the  coats,  out  of  which  come  the  two 
cotyledons,  which  as  they  reach  the  light  become  veined 


Jan.  12 


Jan.  31 


Germination  of  a  Squash. 


and  green  —  seed  leaves  in  appearance  as  well  as  in 
name. 

The  seed  leaves  (cotyledons)  of  the  bean  and  peanut 
"sleep"  at  night,  thus  protecting  the  tender  leaves 
within. 

The  facts  with  reference  to  the  other  seeds  are  suffi- 
ciently indicated  by  the  drawings. 


JANUARY 


139 


Feb.  9 


Feb.  10 


Germination  of  a  Peanut. 


140  NATURE   STUDY 

Seeds  need  moisture,  air,  and  warmth  in  order  to 
germinate.  Liglit  is  non-essential  in  the  beginning, 
but  is  a  necessity  after  the  plants  have  come  above  the 
ground. 

Metliod : 

Seeds  may  be  germinated  in  sand,  in  sawdust,  on  a 
damp  sponge,  in  a  tumbler,  on  raw  cotton,  or  on  blotting 
paper  similarly  placed.  With  young  pupils,  however,  I 
have  found  the  following  to  work  admirably : 

Each  pupil  is  requested  to  bring  one,  or  better  two, 
timiblers  and  a  piece  of  string,  a  foot  long.  They  are 
then  given  each  a  small  gummed  label  on  which  the 
name  is  written,  and  then  attached  to  the  tumblers. 

Squares  of  coarse  cheese  cloth,  or  of  mosquito  netting, 
are  given  to  each,  and  by  each  tied  across  the  labelled 
timibler.  The  tumbler  should  now  be  filled  with  water 
so  that  the  centre  of  the  cloth  is  wet.  Here  place  the 
soaked  seeds,  and  cover  with  another  tumbler,  if  possible, 
to  protect  the  seeds  from  the  dry,  hot  air  of  the  ordinary 
schoolroom. 

It  will  be  less  trouble  to  show  the  children  a  tumbler 
properly  prepared,  and  giving  them  each  a  label  and 
mosquito  netting,  let  them  do  the  work  at  home. 

Shall  we  place  these  tumblers  in  the  light  or  in  the 
dark?  If  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion,  allow  those 
who  think  that  the  dark  will  be  better  to  place  their 
seeds  there,  and  vice  versa.  If  no  one  wishes  to  do  this, 
extra  sets  may  be  prepared  by  the  teacher  and  so  placed. 

Shall  we  place  them  in  the  cold,  on  the  window  ledge, 
or  inside  in  the  warmth  ?  As  before,  arrange  to  have 
some  seeds  in  the  cold. 

The  best  seeds  for  study,  because  they  are  sure  to 


JANUARY  141 

germinate  even  under  unfavorable  circumstances,  are 
peas  and  wheat.  Squash  ranks  third,  but  the  others 
before  mentioned  do  better  either  in  sand,  sawdust,  or 
earth. 

For  this  reason  I  give  the  children  soaked  wheat  and 
peas  for  their  tumblers,  letting  them  have  the  others  for 
home  growth. 

Fill  a  small,  thin,  glass  bottle  with  dry  peas.  Cover 
the  mouth  with  stout  muslin  tightly  tied  with  twine. 
Invert  the  bottle  in  a  pail,  placing  the  whole  apparatus 
in  full  sight. 

The  seeds  will  absorb  the  moisture  so  rapidly,  gaining 
so  much  in  size,  that  the  bottle  will  burst  in  from  two 
to  four  hours. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  question  the  children  about 
the  experiment,  or  to  ask  them  to  give  their  attention. 
Every  move  of  yours  will  be  watched.  Instead  of  allow- 
ing them  to  tell  you  what  has  happened,  let  them  write 
an  account  of  what  was  done  and  its  consequences. 

Instead  of  this,  dry  peas  and  peas  soaked  in  water  over 
night  may  be  distributed,  one  of  each  kind  for  every 
child. 

Ask  the  following  questions,  not,  however,  allowing 
oral  answers,  but  giving  sufficient  time  between  the  ques- 
tions for  good  silent  thought  and  work :  Are  these  peas 
of  the  same  color  ?  size  ?  shape  ?  hardness  ?  With  a 
pin,  take  off  a  portion  of  the  coat  of  each.  Hold  this 
piece  between  the  eye  and  the  light.  How  many  layers 
do  you  see  ?     Are  these  layers  of  the  same  thickness  ? 

Remove  the  entire  coat  of  the  soaked  pea.  What  is 
left  ?     Are  these  parts  still  connected  ? 

Now  give  out  paper,  asking  them  to  write  all  that  they 


142  NATURE   STUDY 

have  learned  and  to  draw  the  remaining  pea,  showing  as 
much  as  can  be  shown  in  one  drawing.  They  might  also 
draw  the  half  of  the  pea  which  shows  the  embryo. 

Still  another  method  of  introducing  the  subject  of 
germination  is  to  fill  the  skull  of  any  animal  with  dried 
peas,  closing  the  foramen  with  stout  muslin,  as  indicated 
in  the  bottle  experiment.  The  skull  should  be  placed  in 
a  dish  of  water.  In  less  than  a  day  it  will  be  beautifully 
disarticulated. 

The  teacher  should  grow,  preferably  in  damp  sawdust, 
a  number  of  the  seeds,  planting  a  fresh  lot  every  week, 
so  that  she  may  have  on  hand  plenty  of  material  for  her 
own  and  the  children's  study. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  seeds  are  not  kept  too  wet. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
change  the  water,  but  if  it  does  become  cloudy,  let  the 
children  pour  it  out,  rinse  the  tumbler  and  refill.  This 
can  be  easily  done  without  disturbing  the  seeds. 

It  will  be  about  a  Aveek  before  the  seeds  have  made  any 
perceptible  progress.  From  your  own  store  of  material, 
select  seeds  which  are  in  about  the  same  stage  of  growth, 
and  give  one  to  each  child. 

What  has  happened  ?  How  did  it  happen  ?  What 
will  this  little  root  do  ?     Why  ? 

Bring  the  seeds  from  the  dark  and  from  the  cold  — 
the  dry  seeds.  Which  seeds  have  grown  best  ?  Why  ? 
Which  have  grown  least  ?  Why  ?  How  many  would  like 
to  put  their  tumblers  in  the  dark  room  ?     Why  ? 

Older  Seeds:  What  has  happened  to  the  root  of  the 
pea  ?     Why  ?      What   difference   is   there   between  the 


JANUARY  143 

root  of  the  pea  and  that  of  the  wheat  ?  What  has  hap- 
pened to  the  stem  of  the  pea  ?  Look  at  the  tip  of  tliis 
stem.  What  do  you  find  there  ?  Touch  them.  Why  is 
this  tip  bent  under  ?  But  the  pea  does  not  have  to  push 
its  way  through  dirt  or  anything  else  in  your  tumbler,  so 
why  should  it  be  arched  here  ?  How  does  the  stem  of 
the  wheat  differ  from  that  of  the  pea  ?     AVhy  ? 

Still  Older  Seedlings:  Why  was  the  root  of  the  pea 
branched  ?  Why  was  the  stem  uncoiled  ?  What  similar 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  Avheat  ? 

Still  Older  Seedlings :  Compare  the  netted  veined,  com- 
pound stipulate  leaves  of  the  pea  with  the  simple  parallel- 
veined  leaf  of  the  wheat.     Teach  the  term  "  seed  leaf." 

Give  them  all  the  stages  of  the  pea  to  arrange  in  order 
and  to  draw.  Require  the  labelling  of  the  following  parts, 
—  root,  branch,  leaf,  tendril,  seed  leaves. 

Give  them  all  the  stages  of  the  wheat  to  arrange  and 
draw  in  the  same  way. 

Teach  them  something  of  the  Pea  family,  with  its 
butterfly-like  flowers,  and  its  very  useful  seeds.  Its 
best  known  members  are  the  bean,  clover,  locust,  and 
peanut. 

To  the  Grass  family ,  belong  not  only  the  grass  and 
wheat,  but  also  corn  and  all  the  other  grains. 

LITERATURE 
Stories  : 

Little  Grain  of  Wlieat,  Mrs.  Burnett.    This  is  published  in  the 
Little  St.  Elizabeth  volume. 
_JFive  Peas  in  a  Pod,  Andersen. 
Unopened  Parcels,  Mrs.  Gatty's  Parables  from  Nature. 


144 


NATURE    STUDY 


Story  of  the  Seed,  George  MacDonald's,  David  Elginbrood. 

'  I  Jane  Andrews'  Stories  Mother  Nature  Told. 
Quercus  Alba,     J 

Picciola,  Xavier  Saintine. 

ANIMALS 

The  Crow,  Owl,  and  Woodpecker  are,  next  to  the  spar- 
rows and  pigeons,  the  best  known  resident  birds. 


Crow. 

Crow. 

Facts : 

The  crow  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  ravens, 
jays,  jackdaws,  magpies.  It  has  stout  perching  feet  also 
adapted  for  walking.  Its  beak  is  large,  strong,  and 
slightly  hooked  at  the  end.  In  flying,  the  wings  appear 
saw-toothed. 

Its  nest  is  very  large,  resting  on  a  platform  of  sticks, 
made  up  in  great  part  of  cedar  bark,  and  containing  from 


JANUARY 


145 


four  to  seven  large,  strong,  green  eggs  specked  witLi  brown. 
Its  call  note  is  "  Caw."'  Its  food  is  corn,  young  birds, 
birds'  eggs,  and  sometimes  stray  insects  and  field  mice. 


Sparrow. 


Parrot. 


Humming  Bird. 


Birds'  beaks. 


Method : 

If  possible,  secure  a  stuffed  and  mounted  crow  with  a 
nest  filled  with  its  proper  quota  of  eggs.  If  this  is  im- 
possible, give  the  children  hektograph  drawings. 

What  bird  is  this  ?  When  and  where  have  you  seen 
it  ?  Look  at  its  beak.  How  does  it  differ  from  the 
beak  of  the  sparrow  and  pigeon  ?     What  do  you  think, 


146 


NATURE   STUDY 


then,   is   its   food  ?     Of  what  use  to  it  is  the  hook   at 
the  end  ? 

Look  at  its  feet.    How  are  they  like  the  sparrow's  foot  ? 
What  can  it  do  then  ?     How  are  they  different  ?     Wliy  '.' 

Owl. 

Facts  : 

The   commonest   of   the   resident   Owls   is    the   little 
horned  or  screech  owl  {Megascops  asio).      As  its  name 
indicates,  the  head  of  this  species  is 
marked  by  a  horn  or  tuft  of  feathers. 
It  varies  greatly  in  color. 

The    nests    are    most    frequently 
found  in  the  hollows   of  trees,  and 


Beak  of  Falcon. 

contain    from   four  to  six  nearly 
si)herical  white  eggs. 

Like  all  the  owls  and  hawks, 
it  is  a  bird  of  prey.  In  conse- 
quence, its  beak  is  sharply  hooked, 
for  this,  with  its  stout,  strong  claws,  is 
used  for  tearing  its  food.  It  eats 
mice,  English  sparrows,  cut  worms, 
and  other  animals.  It  is  a  nocturnal  bird.  Doubtless  be- 
cause of  its  downy  plumage,  it  makes  little  noise  in  flying. 


Horned  Owl. 


JANUARY 


147 


The  barn  owl,  the  cat  owl,  the  barred  owl  (hoot  owl), 
the  great  horned  owl,  are 
also  residents,  and  the  snowy 
owl,  while  breeding  further 
north,  is  sometimes  seen  here 
in  the  winter. 

Woodpecker. 

Fads  : 

All  of  the  woodpeckers  are 
climbers,  and  have,  in  conse- 
quence, two  of  their  toes  in 
front  and  one  or  two  behind. 

The  bill  is  a  long,  strong 
chisel,  well  adapted  for  bor- 
ing into  trees,  which  it  does 
to  make  its  nest.  The  tongue 
is  long  and  remarkably  ex- 
tensile. By  means  of  this, 
it  catches  the  insects  which 
hide  themselves  under  the 
bark  of  trees. 

They  are  mostly  resident 
birds  feeding,  as  they  do,  on 
dormant  insects  which  are 
always  abundant. 

3fethods  : 

These  have  been  suflB.- 
ciently  indicated  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  Crow. 

If  there  is  time,  it  would 
be  well   for  the  children  of 

Woodpecker's  bill  and  tong'ue. 


Red-headed  Woodpecker. 


148 


NATURE   STUDY 


the  third  and  fourth  years,  since  they  have  now  studied 
perchers,  scratchers,  climbers,  and  birds  of  prey,  to  study 
the  waders,  the  swimmers,  and  the  runners. 

Of  the  first,  either  the  heron  or  stork  is  an  example. 
Notice  the  beak  adapted  for  the  catching  and  devouring 


Swimmer:  Goose. 


Climber:  Wood- 
pecker. 


Wader:   Green  Heron. 


Running- :  Ostrich. 


Percher.  Scratcher:  Grouse. 


Bird  of  prey  .  Eagle. 


JANUARY 


149 


of  fish.  Ducks  are  swimmers.  Notice  their  broad  beaks, 
with  strainer-like  teeth,  the  adaptation  of  their  feet  to 
the  soft  mud,  the  boat-shaped  body,  and  the  legs  well 
placed  for  rowing.  The  ostrich,  whose  foot  more  nearly 
approaches  the  human  foot,  is  a  splendid  runner. 


Skeleton  of  Sparrow. 

Bones  of  Birds. 

Facts : 

Most  of  the  bones  of  adult  birds  are  hollow  and  filled 
with  air,  Avhereas  the  bones  of  mammals  are  always 
heavy,  and  when  not  solid  are  filled  with  marrow. 

This  fact  accounts  in  a  great  measure  for  the  lightness 
of  the  body  of  birds,  and  the  length  of  time  which  a 
diving  bird  can  stay  underneath  the  water. 

In  the  skeleton  of  a  bird,  notice  the  deep,  thin  breast 
bone,  and  the  "  wish "  or  collar  bone  on  which  we  fi^nd 


150  NATURE   STUDY 

the  solid  white  meat  —  muscle  to  move  the  wings ;  the 
wing  which  corresponds  to  the  arm  even  having  a  rudi- 
mentary thumb ;  the  knee,  bending  in  the  same  direction 
as  our  knee ;  the  ankle  joint,  with  the  heel;  the  long  leg- 
like foot ;  and  the  tail  bone. 

Method : 

Get  from  the  children  meat  and  chicken  bones  enough, 
if  possible,  so  that  each  child  may  have  one  of  each  for 
comparison. 

The  bones  should  be  cleaned  and  broken,  so  as  to  show 
their  structure. 

Which  are  chicken  bones  ?  Why  do  you  think  so  ? 
What  other  differences  between  these  bones  ?  Have  you 
never  seen  a  hollow  bone  in  beefsteak  or  other  red  meat  ? 
What  filled  the  opening  ?  Which  bones  are  heavier  ? 
What  advantage  is  it  to  the  cow  to  have  heavy  bones  ? 
What  disadvantage  would  they  be  to  the  birds  ? 

Draw  on  the  board  the  skeleton  of  a  bird.  Let  the 
children  pick  out  such  bones  as  they  know  —  the  wish 
bone,  wing,  drumstick,  breast  bone,  neck,  back  bone,  ribs. 
Let  them  see  the  use  of  each,  and  its  analogy  and  homol- 
ogy to  the  same  bones  in  our  own  bodies. 

Feathers  of  Birds. 
Facts : 

The  feathers  of  birds  are  outgrowths  from  the  skin, 
differing  from  the  scales  of  reptiles  and  the  hair  of  the 
mammals  in  character  but  not  in  origin. 

The  parts  of  the  feather  are  the  quills,  the  shaft,  the 
barbs,  and  the  barbules.  The  quill  is  hollow.  The  shaft 
is  filled  with  a  light  pith.  The  barbules  are  covered 
with  fine  threads,  usually  hooked  at  the  tip,  thus  fasten- 


JANUARY 


151 


ing  together  the  barbs  and  making  of  them  a  close  web, 
which  resists  the  air,  thus  making  it  possible  for  the  bird 
to  fly. 

Besides  the  quill  feathers  from  the  wings  and  tail, 
there  are  the  slighter  clothing  feathers,  and  in  some 
birds,  down. 


Piece  of  feather  magnified,  showing  barbs 
and  barbules. 


Method : 

Secure  from  a  provision  dealer  a  supply  of  quill,  cloth- 
ing, and  down  feathers. 

Put  in  envelopes  one  of  each,  and  distribute  to  the 
children  for  comparison. 

Tell  the  story  of  the  eider  duck,  which  again  and  again 
plucks  first  her  own  and  then  the  breast  of  her  mate  to 


152  NATURE   STUDY 

reline  the  nest,  from  which  men   have  stolen   the   soft 
down. 

Ostrich  feathers,  the  ostrich,  and  ostrich  farming  make 
interesting  lessons. 

LITERATURE 

The  Readers  are  full  of  accounts  of  all  the  birds  here  mentioned. 

Why  the  Crow  is  Black,  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales. 

Legend  of  the  Woodpecker,  Cooke's  Nature  Myths. 

A  Legend  of  the  Northland  (The  Woodpecker),  Phoebe  Gary. 

The  Crow's  Children,  Phoebe  Gary. 

The  Owl,  Tennyson. 


CHAPTER   VI 

FEBRUARY 

An  Afternoon  in  February,  Longfellow. 

WEATHER 

The  lessons  on  evaporation,  boiling,  and  condensation, 
which  have  now  been  taken  by  children  in  all  the  grades, 
should  be  reviewed  in  connection  with  the  following 
lessons  on  cloud  formation,  rain,  snow,  hail,  dew,  and 
frost. 

Facts  : 

The  heat  of  the  sun  causes  constant  evaporation  from 
the  surface  of  all  water  exposed  to  its  rays.  This 
evaporated  water,  water  vapor  we  may  call  it,  is  invisi- 
ble and  is  lighter  than-  the  atmosphere.  Therefore  it  is 
continually  rising,  allowing  the  heavier  air  above  to  come 
down  and  take  up  more  vapor.  The  amount  of  water 
thus  quietly  thrown  into  the  atmosphere  is  enormous. 
In  tropical  countries  not  far  from  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  of  water  a  day  is  carried  off  from  exposed  surfaces. 

Clouds : 

As  this  water  vapor  rises,  it  gets  into  colder  regions, 
and  as  a  consequence  condenses  into  visible  masses  which 
we  call  clouds.  Cumulus  or  wool-pack  clouds  are  often 
seen  with  a  straight,  lower  edge  resting  on  an  invisible 

153 


154  NATURE    STUDY 

column  of  water  vapor  rising  from  below.  Oftener,  how- 
ever, the  water  vapor  which  makes  the  clouds  above  us 
has  travelled  a  great  distance,  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
clouds,  it  is  true,  but  sometimes  as  invisible  water 
vapor. 

Rain  : 

If  these  clouds  encounter  a  cold  wind,  more  and  more 
of  the  water  is  condensed,  and  the  line  particles  of  water 
dust  by  the  law  of  cohesion  are  attracted  toward  each 
other.  They  unite,  forming  drops,  which  are  drawn  down 
to  the  ground  in  the  form  of  rain  by  attraction  of  gravi- 
tation. 

Effects  of  Rain  : 

Directly  or  indirectly  all  the  inequalities  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  may  be  traced  back  to  the  action  of  rain. 
Hills,  slopes,  plains,  valleys,  gorges,  ravines,  all  are  due 
to  the  action  of  water,  and  of  water  ceaselessly  flowing 
back  to  the  ocean  only  to  be  reprecipitated  again  as  rain. 

Rain  makes  the  greater  part  of  the  food  of  all  vegeta- 
tion, and  is  absolutely  essential  to  both  animal  and  vege- 
table life. 

Sxow : 

If  the  water  vapor  reaches  freezing  air  before  conden- 
sation takes  place,  then  small  ice  needles,  white  because 
they  contain  air,  are  formed  and  are  attracted  toward 
each  other  by  a  regular  rule  Avhich  results  in  the  forma- 
tion of  many  beautiful  figures,  all  of  which  are  built  up 
on  the  plan  of  six. 

Vegetation  is  protected  by  the  blankets  of  snow  which 
cover  the  colder  parts  of  the  country  in  the  winter. 


FEBRUARY  155 

Hail  : 

If  the  water  vapor  does  not  encounter  freezing  air  until 
it  has  condensed  into  drops,  until,  in  brief,  it  has  be- 
come rain,  then  we  have  hailstones  formed. 

Dew  : 

After  the  sun  goes  down,  the  accumulated  heat  of  the 
day  is  given  back  into  the  air  often  more  rapidly  than  it 
can  be  drawn  up  from  the  ground  below.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  blades  of  grass,  because  of  their  greatly 
exposed  surface.  In  consequence,  they  become  cold 
more  quickly  than  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  and  on 
them  is  condensed  water  vapor  in  the  form  of  dew.  Peb- 
bles, however,  do  not  give  off  heat  much  more  rapidly 
than  they  can  draw  it  up,  therefore  they  do  not  become 
much  colder  than  the  air,  and  therefore  do  not  have  dew 
formed  upon  them  to  any  extent.  For  this  reason  gravel 
paths  will  be  dry  even  in  the  early  morning,  while  the 
grass  adjoining  is  wet. 

Anything  which  will  keep  the  heat  from  radiating 
from  a  surface,  will  keep  that  surface  free  from  dew. 
Thus  while  cobwebs  fairly  sparkle  with  dewdrops,  the 
grass  beneath  is  perfectly  dry.  Clouds  act  like  the  cob- 
web, preventing  rapid  radiation  of  heat.  Therefore  dew 
is  not  formed  on  a  cloudy  night. 

Frost  : 

This  is  not  frozen  dew,  but  vapor  condensed  as  a  solid 
instead  of  as  a  liquid.  In  its  formation  it  is  analogous 
to  snow,  not  to  hail ;  hence  its  crystalline  form. 

Effects  of  Frost : 

Every  farmer  knows  that  frost  breaks  up  the  ground. 
For  this  reason,  he  often  ploughs  immediately  after  a 


156  NATURE   STUDY 

frost,  because  then  half  the  work  is  clone  for  him.  But 
it  does  more  than  this.  It  helps  to  form  the  soil  by 
breaking  up  the  rocks. 

Methods : 

Let  the  kettle  boil  again. 

Where  else  have  you  seen  white  masses  like  this  ? 
What  are  they  called  ?  From  what  are  the  clouds  of 
steam  formed  ?  How  ?  From  what  are  clouds  formed  ? 
How? 

When  the  cold  plate  was  brought  in  contact  with  the 
steam,  what  happened  ?  Why  ?  What  happened  to  the 
drops  of  water  ?  Why  ?  What  causes  drops  of  water  to 
form  from  clouds  ?  Why  do  these  grow  larger  ?  Why 
do  they  fall  as  rain  ? 

If  the  immediate  effects  of  rain  on  the  soil  of  the 
school  yard  were  observed  in  the  fall,  now  will  be  a  most 
excellent  time  to  review  and  make  coherent  the  know- 
ledge thus  obtained  by  the  children. 

If,  however,  these  observations  were  not  made,  it  will 
be  better  to  wait  until  the  time  of  spring  showers.  For 
the  sake  of  convenience,  however,  the  method  of  teach- 
ing the  effects  of  rain  will  be  given  here. 

What  kind  of  a  mark  did  the  raindrops  make  in  the 
soil  of  the  school  yard  ?  ^\T.iy  ?  What  became  of  these 
drops  ?  What  good  did  the  rain  that  sank  into  the  soil 
do  for  the  plants  ?  Why  ?  How  ?  What  happened  to 
the  drops  that  staid  above  ground  ?  "VMien  they  found  a 
channel,  what  did  they  do  to  it  ?  AVhy  is  the  gutter 
stream  so  large  ?  Why  is  it  so  dirty  ?  What  will  hap- 
pen to  this  dirt  after  a  while  ?  How  do  you  know  ? 
How  are  rivers  formed?     What   ^vork  do   they  do    as 


FEBRUARY  157 

tliey  travel  rapidly  along  ?     What  do  they  form  when 
they  go  slowly  ? 

Show  the  childi'en  such  pictures  as  those  of  the  Canons 
of  the  Colorado,  and  tell  them  the  story  of  the  Missis- 
sippi or  of  the  ISTile. 

For  the  proper  study  of  snow  and  frost,  the  children 
should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  results  of  crystalliza- 
tion and  the  conditions  under  which  it  takes  place.  This 
is  most  easily  done  by  allowing  a  saturated  solution  of 
salt  in  hot  water  slowly  to  cool  and  then  to  evaporate. 
Compare  the  resulting  cubes  with  those  found  in  ordinary 
cooking  salt  and  in  rock  salt.  The  children  will  at  once 
see  that  the  difference  is  one  of  size  only.  They  should 
be  told  that  the  crystals  of  rock  salt  are  formed  when  the 
cooling  and  evaporation  are  very  slow,  so  that  the  parti- 
cles of  salt  are  not  hurried,  and  are  thus  free  to  build  up 
large  crystals. 

This  lesson  will  be  more  attractive,  perhaps,  if,  instead 
of  salt,  sugar  and  rock  candy  are  used. 

For  other  suggestions,  read  the  chapters  on  crystals  in 
Euskin's  "  Ethics  of  the  Dust." 

The  work  of  frost  was  illustrated,  doubtless,  in  January, 
if  one  of  the  seed  tumblers  was  placed  on  the  window 
ledge.  The  water  probably  froze,  and  by  its  expansion 
in  turning  into  ice  broke  the  tumbler.  ^Nlake  use  of  this 
incident,  taking  up  the  work  of  frost  in  general. 

Dew  has  already  been  illustrated  by  bringing  a  pitcher 
of  ice  water  into  the  warm  room.  Where  is  dew  formed  ? 
What  must  then  be  true  of  the  temperature  of  the  blades 
of  grass  ?  Why  are  they  colder  ?  AMiy  does  everything 
get  colder  at  night  ?     What  will  prevent  the  formation 


158  NATURE   STUDY 

of  dew?    Why?    Why  do  people  cover  plants  with  news- 
papers when  they  are  afraid  of  a  frost  ? 

Literature : 

The  poems  with  reference  to  snow  and  rain  will  be 
found  in  the  weather  literature  for  previous  months. 
See  pp.  15,  17,  18,  109. 

Stories  : 

The  General  Thaw,  Mrs.  Gatty's  Parables  from  Nature. 
Aqua,  Kate  Douglass  Wiggin's  The  Story  Hour. 
Story  of  the  Boy  and  the  Haarlem  Dike. 
Father  Alclur,  Alice  Giberne. 
A  Drop  of  Water,  Andersen. 

Easy  Poems : 

The  Brook,  Tennyson. 

Little  Jack  Frost,  Walker's  Songs  and  Games. 

Jack  Frost,  Eleanor  Smith. 

Little  Artist,      i 


Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 


Jack  Frost, 

Frost  rictui'es. 

The  River,         J 

Jack  Frost,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 


3Tore  Difficult  Poems : 

Rain,  Margaret  Deland. 

The  Frost  Spirit,  Whittier. 

Mad  River,     1 

o  T.-  \  Longfellow. 

Songo  River,  J  ° 

Fountain,  Lowell. 

Lodore,  Southey. 

A  Farewell,  Tennyson. 

Summer  Shower,  Emily  Dickinson. 

PLANTS 

The  study  of  the  germinating  seeds  outlined  in  Chap. 
V.  will  not  be  finished  until  the  close  of  February,  or 
even  until  March. 


FEBBUARY  159 

In  addition  to  the  observation  of  the  growing  seeds, 
such  experiments  shoukl  be  performed  as  will  demon 
strate  clearly  to  the  children  that  these  seeds  are  alive ; 
that  like  the  animals,  they  not  only  grow,  but  that  they 
also  breathe  and  eat. 

Facts  : 

Plants,  like  animals,  breathe  out  carbon  dioxide.  This 
they  do  continually,  but  owing  to  the  oxygen  given  out 
in  the  assimilation  of  food,  a  life  process  which  takes 
place  only  in  the  light,  respiration  is  most  easily  shown 
with  plants  that  are  kept  in  the  dark. 

Plants  take  in  nourishment  osmotically  through  their 
roots.  This  food  consists  of  water  and  substances  dis- 
solved in  it.  They  are  able,  however,  b}^  means  of  an 
acid  secretion,  to  act  upon  carbonate  of  lime,  which  is 
then  available  for  food. 

Method  : 

It  is  first  necessary  to  show  what  breath  really  is. 
Let  the  children  breathe  against  their  ha:ids,  against 
a  cold  surface,  such  as  the  board,  into  a  little  clear  lime 
water  through  a  straw  or  glass  tube. 

Why  is  the  breath  warm  ?  What  does  it  contain  ? 
What  effect  has  it  on  the  lime  water? 

The  turbidity  of  the  lime  water  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  breath  precipitates  lime  car- 
bonate, a  white  solid,  and  therefore  easily  seen  in  the 
water. 

These  experiments  establish  the  fact  that  we  breathe 
out  carbon  dioxide  and  water  vapor.  This  is  true  of  all 
qnimals.     Is  it  true  of  plants  ? 


160  NATURE  STUDY 

The  following  experiments  will  decide  these  questions 
and  some  others  : 

Place  some  fresh  leaves  in  a  bottle  of  water,  which 
should  then  be  placed  in  a  fruit  jar.  Suspend  in  the 
same  jar  a  small  bottle  of  clear  lime  water.  Close  se- 
curely and  cover  with  black  paper,  or  set  it  in  a  perfectly 
dark  closet.     The  jar  must  be  absolutely  air  tight. 

Prepare  another  jar  in  the  same  way,  omitting  the 
lime  water. 

The  next  day  exhibit  the  first  jar. 

What  has  happened  to  the  lime  water  ?  Why  ?  Where 
must  the  carbon  dioxide  have  come  from  ?  "What  does 
this  indicate  ? 

Into  the  other  jar,  lower  a  bit  of  burning  candle  sus- 
pended by  a  wire.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  carbon 
dioxide  it  will  immediately  cease  to  burn.  To  show 
that  this  is  not  due  to  the  shape  of  the  jar,  introduce 
the  burning  candle  into  a  similar  empty  jar. 

In  which  jar  did  the  candle  go  out  ?  What  is  the 
difference  between  the  two  jars  ?  Why,  then,  do  you 
think  that  the  candle  went  out  in  one  jar  but  not  in  the 
other  ?  What  two  tests  are  there  to  prove  the  presence 
of  carbon  dioxide  ? 

Set  up  this  experiment  in  the  same  way,  but  put  the 
jar  where  the  leaves  will  be  in  a  strong  light. 

Test  for  carbon  dioxide.  Explain  to  the  children  why 
this  time  the  candle  does  not  go  out.  If  the  aquarium 
is  flourishing  and  in  a  good  light,  they  can  see  the  little 
bubbles  of  oxygen  given  off  by  the  plants. 

How  shall  we  find  out  whether  seeds  breathe  ? 

Set  up  one  experiment  in  the  light  and  the  other  in 


FEBRUARY 


161 


the  dark.  In  both  cases  carbon  dioxide  is  given  off. 
Why  is  it  that  oxygen  does  not  mask  the  respiration 
as  before  ?  Because,  since  seeds  are  not  green,  no  oxy- 
gen is  produced. 

In  this  experiment  peas  soaked  over  night,  or,  better 
still,  those  already  germinating,  should  be  used.  Fill 
the  jar  at  least  a  quarter  full,  and  put  in  with  the  seeds 
pieces  of  damp  blotting  paper  to  keep  them  moist. 

Do  plants,  like  animals,  breathe  out  water  vapor  ? 

An  experiment  ar- 
ranged as  in  the  accom- 
panying cut  will  an- 
swer the  question. 
Within  twenty-four 
hours  the  glass  abov^e 
the  branches  will  be 
covered  with  drops  of 
water. 

Care  must  be  taken 
to  make  the  upper 
tumbler  air  tight; 
otherwise  the  water 
transpired  by  the  plant 

will    be    absorbed    by    

the  air,  and   in  conse- 
quence none  will  be  deposited  in  the  glass.     This  may 
be  done  by  fastening  the  upper  tumbler  to  the  pasteboard 
with  asphalt,  shellac,  or  putty. 


CARD-BOARO 


To  demonstrate  that  plants  can  feed  upon  solid  lime 
carbonate,  plant  a  number  of  soaked  peas  on  a  piece 
of  polished  marble  in  earth.     At  the  end  of  a  month, 


162  NATUEE   STUDY 

or,  better,  two  months,  remove  the  marble.  On  its  sur- 
face will  be  found  the  markings  of  the  roots.  These  have 
dissolved  the  marble  by  means  of  an  acid  of  their  own 
manufacture. 

Seed  Food-supply: 

It  is,  perhaps,  an  open  question  how  much  of  the  work 
in  plant  physiology  above  given  should  be  taught.  Omit 
all  of  it,  rather  than  not  give  some  lessons  on  seed  food- 
supply. 

Facts : 

Either  wrapped  around  the  embryo,  or  stored  away  in 
some  of  its  parts,  is  food  sufficient  to  supply  the  needs 
of  the  body  plant  until  it  is  able  to  get  and  make  food 
for  itself.  This  may  be  in  the  form  of  starch,  oil,  pro- 
teids,  such  as  the  gluten  of  wheat,  or  cellulose,  of  which 
the  hard  seed  of  the  date  is  an  example. 

Iodine  turns  wet  starch  blue  or  black ;  oil  is  easily  de- 
termined by  the  stain  that  it  makes  on  paper.  The 
gluten  of  wheat  may  be  extracted  by  chewing  it  until 
only  the  gummy  gluten  is  left.  Many  seeds  —  the  nut- 
meg, for  example  —  contain  several  kinds  of  food. 

Method : 

Give  the  children  peanuts.  Where  do  they  grow? 
On  what  part  of  the  plant  are  they  found  ?  Do  the  flow- 
ers which  produce  them  bloom  under  the  ground,  too  ? 
Why  is  this  ? 

How  many  coats  has  the  peanut?  How  many  parts 
to  the  seed  ?  Look  closely.  Do  you  find  anything  con- 
necting these  parts  ?     What  is  it  ? 

Prick  the  nut.  What  happens  ?  Of  what  use  is  the 
oil  to  the  seed?     Do  you  know  of  any  people  who  like 


FEBRUARY  163 

oil  and  oily  foods  ?  Why  does  the  peanut  have  oil  in  its 
seed  leaves  ?  Its  seed  leaves  are  also  full  of  starch.  Do 
we  use  starch  for  food  ?     In  what  form  ? 

Why  does  the  mother  plant  provide  the  Ijaby  with  so 
much  food  ?  Do  you  see  now  how  it  is  that  seeds  Avill 
grow  for  a  long  time,  apparently  with  only  water  to 
nourish  them  ? 

Who  else  likes  the  food  of  the  peanut  ?  Tell  me  some 
other  seeds  that  are  good  to  eat. 

In  the  second  and  third  years,  teach  also  the  iodine 
test  for  starch. 

Distribute  soaked  peas,  beans,  or  corn.  Tell  the  chil- 
dren to  break  them  open  so  as  to  expose  a  rough  surface. 
Pass  up  and  down  the  aisles,  putting  a  drop  of  the  tinct- 
ure of  iodine,  by  means  of  a  glass  rod  or  small  brush,  on 
the  seeds,  and  telling  the  children  to  watch  closely  the 
result.  They  ought  to  be  able  to  tell  you  that  the  liquid 
turns  the  seeds  blue  or  black ;  that  this  was  not  a  solid 
color,  but  in  numerous  small  dots. 

Ask  the  name  of  the  liquid,  and  tell  them  that  it  has 
the  power  to  turn  starch  blue.  What  is  there  in  this 
seed  ?     How  is  it  arranged  ? 

Test  wheat  in  the  same  way.  It  also  contains  starch. 
But  it  has  also  another  and  more  valuable  food,  which 
can  be  discovered  by  first  getting  rid  of  the  starch.  Let 
them  chew  a  handful  of  wheat  until  it  is  gummy.  Wash 
away  thoroughly  all  the  starch.  Test  with  iodine.  This 
is  gluten. 

Encourage  the  children  to  test  for  the  food-supply  of 
the  seeds  by  themselves. 

Valuable  language  lessons  may  be  given  on  commercial 
seeds  and  fruits. 


164 


NATURE   STUDY 


ANIMALS 

The  commoner  winter  residents  among  the  birds  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  are  the  Chickadee,  the  Snowbird, 
the  AVinter  Wren,  and  the  Golden-crowned  Kinglet.  They 
breed  farther  north,  but  come  to  us  at  the  approach  of 

cold    weather,    and    remain 
with  us  all  winter. 

Facts  : 

In  general,  the  birds  move 
southward  not  only  to  avoid 
the  cold,  but  also  in  search 
of  food.  Since  it  is  the  young 
who  are  most  sensitive  to 
cold,  and  most  dependent  on 
food,  it  often  happens  that 
they  lead  the  way  in  the 
southern  migration. 

The  Chickadee  :  Its  other 
name,  Black-capped  Tit- 
mouse, describes  its  appear- 
ance. This  is  one  of  our 
most  familiar  winter  birds, 
coming  early  and  leaving 
late.  It  is  very  sociable  and  fearless,  eating  nearly 
everything,  and  singing  perpetually  "  Chick-adee-dee," 
or  often  in  winter  "  day-day-day."  It  is  about  five  and 
a  half  inches  long. 

The  Snowbird  belongs  to  the  Sparrow  family.  Its 
general   appearance   is   slate   color.      It   may   be   easily 


Chickadee. 


FEBRUARY 


165 


recognized  by  the  lateral  tail  feathers,  which  are  white. 
Like  the  chickadee,  it  frequents  dog  kennels,  and  is  even 
more  fearless  in  reference  to  the  human  race,  coming 
often  into  city  yards.  It  measures  from  six  to  six  and 
a  half  inches  in  length. 


Slate-colored  Junco,  or  Snowbird. 

The  Winter  Wrex  is  less  commonly  seen  than  the 
chickadee  and  snowbird,  because  of  its  shy  disposition. 
It  is  easily  recognized  by  its  saucy  tail  and  long,  slender 
beak,  characteristic  of  all  the  Wren  family. 

Its  song,  which,  of  course,  we  never  hear,  is  said  by 
Burroughs  to  be  surpassed  by  few  in  brilliancy  and  plain- 
tiveness. 

Its  length  is  about  four  inches. 


166  NATURE   STUDY 

The  Golden-crowned  Kinglet  is  the  second  smallest 
bird,  in  the  United  States,  measuring  about  four  inches. 
The  humming-bird  is  the  smallest,  and  the  winter  wren 
the  third  in  size. 


Golden-crowned  Kinglet. 

The  male  kinglet  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  his 
mate  by  the  crown  of  the  head,  which  in  his  case  is  flame 
color  edged  with  black,  and  in  hers,  yellow  without  the 
flame  colored  patch. 

In  cold  winters  they  often  go  as  far  south  as  Guatemala. 


FEBRUARY  167 

They  are  especially  fond  of  evergreens,  in  whose  bark 
they  find  many  insect  larva.  They  are  thus  very  useful 
to  us. 

They  were  at  one  time  much  used  for  decorating 
women's  hats,  but  the  killing  of  them  for  this  purpose 
has  been  stopped  by  law.  Their  chief  enemy  at  present 
is  the  English  sparrow. 

Method  : 

Review  the  birds  already  studied,  all  of  whom  are  resi- 
dents. Why  are  they  residents  ?  Are  all  birds  resi- 
dents ?  Why  do  some  leave  us  ?  Where  do  they  go  ? 
Who  goes  first  ?  Why  ?  Do  any  birds  come  to  us  in 
the  winter  ?  Where  do  they  come  from  ?  AVliy  ?  Where 
do  we  most  commonly  see  them  ?     AVhy  ? 

By  means  of  pictures  of  stuffed  birds,  teach  the  chil- 
dren their  striking  peculiarities,  never  forgetting  the  bills 
and  feet  and  their  meanings. 


LITERATURE 
Stories : 

The  Birds'  Christmas  (Chickadee),  Emilie   Poulsson's   In  the 
Child's  World. 

Poems  : 


Titmouse,  Emerson,  "1 

The  Snow  Bird  (Chickadee),  | 

The  Snow  Bird's  Song  (Chickadee),  | 

What  the  Snow  Bird  Said,  J 

The  Chickadee,  Celia  Thaxter. 

Snowbird,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Snowbird,  Dora  Goodale. 


Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 


CHAPTER   VII 
MARCH 


Poems  : 


March,  Mrs.  Dodge,  in  St.  Nicholas  Songs. 

March,  Wordsworth. 

March,  Mary  E.  Blake,  in  Verses  Along  the  Way. 

March,  Celia  Thaxter. 

March  Winds,  Nora  Perry,  in  New  Songs  and  Ballads. 

WEATHER 

All  the  work  that  can  reasonably  be  done  in  a  prelim- 
inary first-year  course  by  children  from  six  to  eleven 
years  of  age  has  already  been  outlined  in  the  preceding 
chapters  of  this  book. 

Begin  now  to  test  your  own  work,  and  to  do  over  again 
what  you  find  is  not  Avell  done. 

The  children  ought  to  be  able  to  tell  at  a  glance,  from 
many  different  signs,  from  what  direction  the  wind  is 
coming,  and  to  give  some  comparative  idea  of  its  velocity. 
They  ought  to  be  able  to  name  the  clouds,  to  explain 
their  origin  and  probable  fate.  They  ought,  within 
limits,  to  be  able  to  predict  the  probable  changes  in 
weather.  Of  each  month,  and,  above  all,  of  the  seasons, 
they  should  have  a  mental  picture,  in  which  is  prominent 
not  only  the  conditions  and  kinds  of  plants  and  animals, 
liut  also  the  amount  of  sunshine,  the  prevailing  winds, 
the  clouds  most  commonly  seen,  and  the  temperature. 

And  this  picture  should  be  an  integral  part  of  their 
minds. 

168 


MARCH  169 

Have  you  gained  this  yourself,  even  ?  Look  back  over 
your  work,  see  where  and  why  you  have  failed.  Use  to 
the  best  advantage  the  remaining  months.  Take  the 
children  out  of  doors,  if  only  for  a  few  moments,  every 
day  that  you  can,  and  take  them  always  with  a  definite 
purpose. 

PLANTS 
Buds  : 

In  early  March  gather  a  large  handful  of  buds  on 
branches  not  less  than  eight  inches  in  length.  Get  as 
many  different  kinds  as  possible.  Cherry,  horse-chest- 
nut, tulip,  poplar,  lilac.  North  Carolina  poplar,  willow, 
are  particularly  desirable. 

In  cutting  these  from  the  tree,  use  pruning  scissors,  or 
a  knife,  and  do  not  take  more  than  a  branch  from  any 
one  part  of  the  tree.  Be  especially  careful  not  to  spoil 
the  horse-chestnut,  because  the  whole  year's  growth  of 
the  branch  is  wrapped  up  in  the  large  and  very  enticing 
terminal  bud. 

Pruning  scissors  are  worth  buying,  since  they  cost  only 
fifty  cents,  and  save  a  vast  amount  of  strength  and  tem- 
per, both  in  securing  the  buds  and  caring  for  them  after- 
wards. 

Cut  off  the  ends  of  every  branch  under  warm  water. 
When  finished,  keep  the  jar  where  it  is  warm,  and,  if 
you  choose,  add  warm  water  each  day.  Renew  the  water 
at  least  once  a  week,  cutting  off  a  piece  of  the  stem  at 
the  same  time. 

The  Horse-chestxut  : 

The  bud  of  the  horse-chestnut  is  very  sticky,  a  wise 
provision  against  the  rains  of  winter.     It  is  covered  with 


170 


NATURE    STUDY 


about  seven  pairs  of  opposite  scales,  all  of  which  appear 
to  be  thick,  brown,  and  shiny.  When  the  bud  opens, 
however,  it  will  be  found  that  this  is  true  only  of  the 
exposed  tips  of  the  inner  scales.  The  part  covered  up  is 
green  and  soft.  Moreover,  when  they 
laxj  together,  they  are  rather  Avoolly. 
Inside  the  scales  are  one,  two,  or  even 
three   pairs    of    very    woolly,   tightly 


Horse-chestnut 
branch. 


Cause  of  the  Horse- 
shoes. 


Horse-chestnut  buds. 


folded,  opposite  leaves.  In  the  centre  may  often  be 
found  a  compact,  woolly  flower  cluster. 

The  leaves  look  at  first  like  rather  clumsy  small  spoons, 
then  like  a  hand  with  from  five  to  seven  fingers.  At  last, 
when  the  wool  begins  to  drop  off,  they  show  that  they 
are  palmately  compound  leaves. 

The  horseshoe-like  scars  below  the  bud  are  the  marks 
left  by  last  year's  falling  leaves.  Observe  that  they  are 
opposite.   The  nails  indicate  the  number  of  leaflets.    This 


MARCH  171 

is  typically  seven,  but  owing  to  hybridization  with  the 
buckeyes,  five,  six,  seven,  and  even  eight  or  nine  are 
occasionally  found. 

Usually  between  every  two  pairs  of  leaf  scars  will  be 
found  rings.  These  mark  the  place  where  the  bud  scales 
dropped  off,  and  therefore  between  them  is  a  year's 
growth.  Observe  that  some  years  the  branch  grew 
much  more  rapidly  than  others.     Why  ? 

Ifethod  : 

Nothing  could  be  better  for  the  children  than  for  each 
to  have  his  own  branch,  with  his  name  cut  on  it,  to  watch 
it  from  day  to  day  and  to  draw  it.  But  this  is  not  often 
practicable.     Moreover,  it  would  be  bad  for  the  trees. 

Much  can  be  accomplished,  even  in  a  large  school,  with 
a  single  branch,  if  only  the  teacher  knows,  if  only  she  is 
in  earnest. 

Review  what  the  children  learned  of  the  buds  in  early 
fall.  Why  do  we  cut  off  their  ends  ?  Vfhj  do  we  place 
them  in  warm  water  ?     Why  are  the  buds  sticky  ? 

As  they  develop,  give  the  children  a  hektograph  draw- 
ing of  each  stage. 

How  do  the  inner  scales  differ  from  the  outer  ones? 
Why  are  the  latter  brown  ?  Why  leathery  ?  Why  are 
the  inner  ones  brown  and  leathery  at  the  outside  tip  ? 
Why  green  elsewhere  ?     Why  slightlv  woolly  ? 

What  is  inside  the  scales  ?  Why  do  you  think  that 
these  are  leaves  ?  Why  are  they  woolly  ?  Why  so  folded 
together  ?     \\Tiat  kind  of  leaves  ?     Hoav  many  leaflets  ? 

Look  at  the  stem.  Do  you  see  any  signs  of  last  year's 
leaves  ?     AVhat  are  the  dots  ?     Do  you  find  any  signs  of 


172 


NATUKE   STUDY 


last  year's  bud  scars  ?  How  many  pairs  of  leaves  were 
wrapped  up  in  this  year's  bud  ?  In  last  year's  ?  How 
old  is  your  branch  ? ' 

Cherry  (the  cultivated) : 

The  leaf  buds  are  smaller  and  longer  than  the  flower 
buds.  The  former  are  terminal,  or  nearly  so,  while  the 
latter  are  always  axillary.  The  flower  buds  develo]) 
first.  There  are  two  or  three  flowers  in  each  bud,  and 
their  stems  are  usually  much  shorter  than  those  that 
develop  normally  on  the  trees. 

Lilac  : 

The  buds  are  four  sided.  Usually,  two  terminate  the 
branch.  The  scales  are  green  and  leaf-like.  Indeed,  as 
they  open,  the  transition  from  the  scale  to  the  leaf 
proper  is  gradual,  but  very  noticeable.  The  lilac  always 
develops  Avell,  and  is  therefore  satisfactory.     Moreover, 

it  is  often  possible  to  obtain  a 
sufficient  quantity  for  the  indi- 
vidual use  of  an  entire  class. 

Thk  Tulip  Tree: 

When  these  can  be  obtained 
at  all,  they  are  to  be  had  in 
abundance,  and,  if  carefully 
cut,  the  tree  will  not  be  injured. 
They  are  one  of  the  prettiest 
buds  in  development,  and  the 
most  satisfactory  of  all  except, 
of  course,  the  horse-chestnut, 
to  pull  apart.  This  may  be  done  later,  when  the  buds  are 
at  their  largest,  with  a  pin,  or,  better  still,  a  penknife. 


Bud  of  the  Tulip  Poplar. 


MARCH 


173 


.  The  cut  shows  perfectly  the  gradual  development  from 
the  bud.  Notice,  particularly,  the  folding  and  position 
of  the  leaves,  and  the  fact  that  there  is  often  a  bud 
within  a  bud. 

Poplar : 

The  buds  of  either  the  yorth  Carolina  or  the  balsam 


Leaf  and  flower  bud. 


Balm  of  Gilead  —  Balsam  Poplar. 


poplar  will  answer  equally  well.  They  are  very  easily 
obtained  in  a  city,  both  because  they  are  common  as 
street  trees,  and  because,  at  this  time  of  the  year,  vandals 
go  about  "trimming  the  trees"  and  throwing  on  the 
ground  an  abundance  of  living  branches. 

The  branches  often  root  in  the  schoolroom,  thus  illus- 
trating why  these  trees  are  so  frequently  grown.     Like 


174  NATURE   STUDY 

the  willow,  it  is  only  necessary  to  plant  a  branch  in  order 
to  have  a  tree. 

The  terminal  buds  contain  the  leaves.  These  do  not 
come  out  until  after  the  flowers.  The  axillary  buds  may 
contain  either  leaves  or  flowers.  The  leaf  buds  are  much 
more  sticky  than  the  flower  buds. 

The  male  flower  clusters,  familiarly  called  caterpillars, 
are  made  up  of  flowers  consisting  of  numerous  large 
stamens.  AVhere  are  the  pistils  ?  How  does  the  flower 
dust  get  to  the  pistils  ?  Has  this  anything  to  do  Avitli 
the  fact  that  the  flowers  come  before  the  leaves  ? 

The  leaves  are  very  neatly  and  compactly  arranged  in 
the  bud,  each  margin  being  rolled  inwards. 

Willow  : 

The  willow  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  poplars, 
and,  like  them,  the  flowers,  familiarly  called  pussy  wil- 
lows, come  in  most  kinds  before  the  leaves.  Like  the 
poplars,  too,  the  male,  or  staminate  flowers,  are  more 
frequently  found.  They  should  be  put  in  water,  and 
attention  called  to  the  yellow  stamens  and  abundant 
pollen.  The  poplars  are  fertilized  by  the  wind,  but  the 
willows  depend  upon  insects. 

Methods : 

The  methods  indicated  for  the  horse-chestnut  should 
be  pursued  with  these  branches.  Do  not  study  too  many 
of  them,  nor  any  of  them  too  minutely. 

Remember  that  the  object  of  these  lessons  is  to  open 
the  eyes  of  the  children  to  the  joys  of  spring,  when, 
later,  the  buds  begin  to  develop  out  of  doors. 


MARCH 


175 


Ripe  Pussy  Willow  (pistils),  one  flower  enlarged.    Pussy  Willow.  Seed. 

LITERATURE 
Stories : 

Bab}-  Buds,  Winter  Clothes.  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's 
World. 

Easy  Poems : 

Pussy  Willow,  In  the  Child's  World. 

The  Sunshine's  Caress, 

Pussy  Willow,  |-  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse, 

Miss  Willow, 


176  NATURE   STUDY 

Seed  Food-supply. 

Facts  : 

Whatever  may  be  the  form  in  which  the  food  for  the 
little  plant  has  been  stored  up  for  the  winter,  before  it 
is  available  it  must  be  changed  to  sugar.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  action  of  a  ferment,  the  other  requisites 
being  moisture  and  warmth. 

Methods : 

Soak  over  night  a  quantity  of  barley.  Plant  it  the 
next  day  in  damp  sawdust.  At  the  end  of  a  few  days 
the  roots  will  be  about  half  an  inch  in  length.  Take 
out  half  of  the  grain,  when  they  have  reached  this  stage, 
wash  away  quickly  the  sawdust,  spread  them  out,  and 
put  them  in  an  oven  to  dry. 

Allow  the  others  to  grow  until  the  green  leaves  are 
developed.     Wash  and  dry. 

Give  to  the  children  some  grains  of  ungerminated 
barley,  the  dried  germinated  barley,  and  the  seedlings. 

What  is  the  seed  food-supply  in  barley?  How  do 
you  know  ?     Taste  it. 

Taste  the  germinated  barley.  What  difference  do  you 
notice  ?     What  does  this  mean  ? 

Taste  the  seedlings.     What  has  become  of  the  sugar  ? 

Just  the  same  thing  happens  with  your  own  food.  All 
the  starch  is  changed  into  sugar,  a  part  of  it  in  the 
mouth. 

Germination  : 

The  seeds  which  were  planted  in  January  must  by 
this  time  have  grown  as  much  as  they  will,  unless  they 
are  planted  in  earth.     This  should  be  done. 


MARCH  177 

In  the  bottom  of  a  flower-pot  jiut  a  few  pieces  of  broken 
crockery  for  drainage,  then  fill  the  pot  to  within  an  inch 
of  the  top  with  good  light  earth.  In  transplanting,  be 
particularly  careful  not  to  injure  the  roots. 

SOIL 

The  greater  portion  of  the  United  States  has  a  soil 
made  by  the  disintegration  of  rocks.  The  sandstones 
and  shales  give  rise  to  a  red  or  white  soil,  which  is  plainly 
seen  to  be  due  to  the  adjacent  rocks ;  Avhile  particles  of 
shining  mica  show  the  relationship  of  that  soil  to  the 
surrounding  gneiss,  mica  schist,  or  granite. 

In  addition  to  mica,  it  is  very  easy  to  separate  out  the 
other  ingredients  common  to  granite  and  other  soil,  viz., 
clay,  coarse  and  fine  sand,  and  decayed  vegetable  matter. 

The  decay  of  the  mother  rock  may  have  been  caused 
in  various  ways.  The  surest  and  commonest  way  in 
which  a  rock  is  destroyed  is  by  the  freezing  of  water 
which  has  soaked  into  it,  and  which  in  the  freezing 
expands,  forcing  off  small  fragments. 

In  desert  regions  where  the  difference  between  the 
day  and  night  temperatures  is  enormous,  travellers  often 
hear  the  rocks  crack,  and  even  see  the  chips  fly,  in 
consequence  of  the  inability  of  the  rock  to  adapt  itself 
to  the  rapid  contraction  and  expansion  whiich  result  from 
sudden  changes  of  temperature,  even  when  no  ice  is 
formed.  This  same  cause  results  in  rock  disintegration 
in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Still  another  cause  of  the  decay  of  rocks  and  conse- 
quent production  of  soil  is  shown  by  the  yellow  stain 
so  commonly  seen,  Avhich  means  merely  that  the  iron  is 
oxidizing,  or  changing  to  iron  rust.  In  the  case  of  gneiss 
and  mica  schist,  this  oxidizing   of  the   iron   results   in 


178  NATURE   STUDY 

the  disintegratioa  of  the  mica  aud  consequent  breaking 
of  the  rock  itself. 

Mica: 

The  commonest  of  all  the  micas  is  white  mica,  or 
rauscovite ;  the  next,  black  mica,  or  biotite.  Both  of 
these  are  found  in  fiat,  six-sided  forms,  made  up  of  very 
thin,  transparent,  elastic  layers.  Both  are  quite  soft, 
being  easily  scratched  with  the  finger  nail.  "VMiite  mica 
may  be  white,  gray,  or,  less  frequently,  brown  or  yellow. 
Black  mica  is  deep  black  to  green.  Moreover,  it  is 
almost  opaque  when  viewed  in  one  direction,  and  trans- 
parent and  of  a  different  color,  when  viewed  in  another 
direction.  Mica  is  used  in  stove  doors,  for  window 
glass  in  Siberia,  for  covering  compass  boxes,  for  frost 
work  at  Christmas  time,  and  sometimes,  like  graphite, 
for  lubricating  machinery. 

Sand: 

The  next  most  evident  thing  in  soil  is  usually  sand. 
The  grains  are  easily  picked  out,  and  will  be  found  to 
vary  in  color,  some  being  transparent;  others,  milky 
white ;  others,  still,  yellow.  They  are  all  grains  of  quartz, 
hard,  therefore,  and  gritty.  They  have  rubbed  against 
each  other  until  they  have  lost  their  sharp  angles.  Sand 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  plaster,  mortar,  and 
for  scouring  and  moulding. 

Clay: 

The  clay  in  soil  may  be  easily  recognized  by  its  char- 
acteristic odor,  particularly  when  wet.  It  is,  in  most 
instances,  derived  from  disintegrated  feldspar.  The  pres- 
ence of  too  much  clay  in  the  soil  makes  it  stiff  and 


MARCH  179 

impervious  to  water,  while  with  sand  alone  the  water 
would  pass  too  quickly  through.  A  mixture  of  sand  and 
clay  is  the  best  for  the  farmer. 

Out  of  the  clay  is  made  porcelain,  china,  crockery, 
flower-pots,  bricks,  drain-pipes. 

Quartz  axd  Pebbles: 

Milky  quartz  in  the  form  of  white  pebbles  may  be 
found  in  abundance  in  most  streams,  and  may  be  bought 
at  aquarium  supply  stores.  Frequently  mixed  with  them 
are  feldspar  pebbles  which,  however,  are  rather  softer  and 
may  be  scratched,  usually  with  difficulty,  Avith  a  knife. 

All  of  the  quartz  pebbles  Avill  be  found  to  be  hard, 
easily  scratching  glass,  light  in  weight,  with  a  glassy 
lustre,  transparent  or  translucent,  or  even  opaque,  break- 
ing irregularly. 

The  green  color  of  some  of  the  pebbles  is  due  to  plants 
grown  in  their  former  habitat  —  a  stream  of  water ;  and 
the  yellow  color  of  others,  to  the  presence  of  iron  which 
has  rusted. 

All  pebbles  began  their  existence  as  angular  pieces 
of  rock.  They  have  become  rounded  by  dint  of  being 
rubbed  against  each  other  in  water.  Glacial  pebbles, 
which  are  common  enough  in  gravel  pits  and  north  of 
the  line  of  the  terminal  moraine  in  the  ice  age,  have 
of  course  been  rounded  by  being  rubbed  along  by  the 
glaciers  of  that  period.     They  are  often  scratched. 

Because  of  the  great  hardness  of  quartz  and  its  lack 
of  susceptibility  to  chemical  change,  we  seldom  have  it 
reduced  to  anything  finer  than  sand,  while  feldspar  is 
finally  reduced  to  impalpable  clay. 

Quartz  crystals  are  built  up  on  the  plan  of  six,  typi- 
cally a  six-sided  right  prism,  capped  on  both  ends  with 


180  NATURE   STUDY 

a  six-sided  pyramid ;  but  this  typical  form  is  rarely  seen. 
Often  there  are  only  the  pyramids.  This  is  called  drusy 
quartz.  The  form  most  commonly  seen  is  the  prism 
terminated  with  a  pyramid.  Quartz  crystals,  when  col- 
ored violet  or  purple,  are  known  as  amethysts. 

Other  well-known  forms  of  quartz  are  rose  quartz, 
smoky  quartz,  yellow  quartz,  agate,  chalcedony,  carnelian, 
opal,  onyx,  flint,  jaspar.  The  stiffness  of  grass  blades 
and  the  grain  is  due  to  silica  or  quartz. 

Some  of  the  uses  of  quartz  have  already  been  given 
under  the  head  of  Sand.  Eock  crystal  was  once  used 
extensively  for  the  best  spectacles.  What  the  boys  call 
"  reallys  "  (marbles)  are  made  from  agate,  which  is  used, 
too,  for  various  ornamental  purposes,  as  are  also  car- 
nelian, amethyst,  jaspar,  chalcedony,  onyx,  and  opal. 
From  flint  were  made  the  Indian  arrow  heads.  The  white 
men  used  it  for  striking  a  fire. 

Feldspar  : 

The  commonest  feldspar  is  that  known  to  mineralo- 
gists as  orthoclase.  It  is  softer  than  quartz,  harder 
than  glass,  ranging  from  six  to  seven  in  a  scale  of  hard- 
ness, which  is  as  follows  : 

1.  Chalk,  Talc,  Graphite. 

■  2.  White  Mica,  Rock  Salt, 

3.  Calcite. 

4.  Fluorite. 

5.  Glass. 

6.  Feldspar  (usually). 

7.  Quartz. 

8.  Beryl. 

9.  Corundum. 
10.  Diamond. 


MARCH  181 

Feldspar  has  a  pearly  lustre  and  two  planes  of  cleav- 
age, one  at  right  angles  to  the  other,  or,  as  the  children 
say,  it  breaks  in  steps.  Its  color  is  usually  light,  ranging 
from  white  to  gray,  pink,  red,  brown,  and  green.  It  is  the 
mineral  which  gives  granites  their  characteristic  colors. 

As  moonstone,  it  is  somewhat  used  for  ornaments.  Its 
other  uses  have  been  given  under  the  head  of  Clay. 

Methods : 

After  the  seeds  have  been  planted  in  the  earth,  give  to 
each  child  a  small  box  half  full  of  soil,  or  distribute  it 
by  the  spoonfuls  on  pieces  of  paper  already  laid  out  on 
their  desks. 

Put  into  one  pile  all  the  gravel  that  j-ou  can  find. 
What  color  is  it?  "What  shape?  Why?  On  the 
ground  which  would  you  find  on  top,  the  gravel  or  the 
fine  soil  ?     Why  ? 

Sort  over  the  rest  of  the  soil.  What  do  you  find  next 
in  size  to  the  gravel  ?  What  is  it  called  ?  Put  in  an- 
other pile  the  grains  of  sand.  What  colors  ?  What 
shape  ?     Hard  or  soft  ?     How  do  you  know  ? 

Let  the  teacher  or  the  pupils  drop  a  little  water  on 
what  is  left.     What  is  the  odor  that  you  now  notice  ? 

What  else  is  there  besides  the  gravel,  sand,  clay,  in 
your  soil  ?  Describe  it.  They  are  sure  to  find  all  sorts 
of  interesting  things,  —  mica,  grasshopper's  eggs,  bits  of 
leaves  and  roots,  earthworm  castings,  etc.  Let  them 
think  out  the  reasons  for  the  presence  of  whatever  they 
find. 

If  mica  is  in  the  soil,  lessons  on  that  mineral  will  be 
very  interesting  to  the  children. 

An  excellent  plan  is  to  ask  the  children  questions, 


182  NATURE   STUDY 

giving  them  time  always  to  observe  their  specimens,  and 
to  think  out  the  answers,  but  not  allowing  them  to 
answer  orally.  Then  giving  them  each  paper,  let  them 
write  all  that  they  can. 

For  mica  the  following  questions  might  be  used: 
What  is  the  color  of  your  specimen?  Hold  it  up  to 
the  light.  Has  it  the  same  color  ?  Try  to  scratch  it 
with  your  finger  nail.  Is  it  hard  or  soft?  Separate  it 
into  thin  layers.  Hold  these  to  the  light.  What  can  you 
see  through  it  ? 

Teach  the  words  ''  transparent,"  "  structure."  Teach 
them  the  uses  of  mica,  and  show  them  how  it  happens  to 
be  in  the  soil.  It  is  usually  perfectly  easy  to  get  a  series 
of  specimens  of  gneiss  and  mica  schist,  showing  all  the 
transitions  from,  the  hard  to  the  softer  rock  and  to  soil. 

Questions  on  quartz  pebbles :  Scratch  it  with  your  fin- 
ger nail,  with  a  penknife.  Try  to  scratch  glass  with  it. 
Is  it  hard  or  soft  ?  What  shape  ?  Why  ?  How  hard  ? 
What  color  ?  Is  it  transparent  ?  Let  the  light  shine  on  it. 
Does  it  shine  like  glass,  or  is  it  softer  like  pearls  ?  What 
is  its  structure  ?     Does  it  break  regularly  or  irregularly  ? 

Review  "  structure  "  and  "  transparent."  Teach  the 
words  "translucent,"  "opaqiie,"  ''lustre."  Teach  part 
of  the  scale  of  hardness,  namely,  1,  2,  5,  7. 

Procure  as  many  different  kinds  of  quartz  as  possible. 
Mix  up  with  these  crystals  of  rock  salt,  rock  candy,  cal- 
cite,  fluorite,  feldspar,  anything,  indeed,  similar  in  ap- 
pearance to  quartz,  and  let  them  learn  to  distinguish  one 
from  the  other.  This  is  easily  done  by  testing  the  hard- 
ness. The  peculiar  crystalline  structure  of  quartz  should 
be  thoroughly  taught. 


MARCH  183 

Excellent  language  and  reading  lessons  may  be  had  on 
the  various  uses  of  the  different  kinds  of  quartz,  and 
particularly  on  the  history  and  manufacture  of  glass. 

If  possible,  begin  now  a  mineral  collection.  Get  the 
largest  and  best  specimens  that  can  be  obtained.  Ar- 
range these  minerals  in  families  as  much  as  possible, 
and  secure  specimens  illustrating  their  uses.  The  labels 
should  contain  not  only  the  name,  but  also  the  locality 
from  which  the  mineral  came.  Let  the  children  con- 
tribute the  greater  number  of  specimens  and  do  the 
greater  portion  of  the  work.  But  the  teacher  must  both 
give  and  work,  if  she  expects  to  have  a  successful  collec- 
tion of  any  kind. 

Feldspar  is  the  commonest  of  all  stones  except  quartz. 
Beautiful  specimens  may  be  bought  for  a  small  sum. 

By  this  time,  each  child  should  possess  a  piece  of  glass, 
a  penknife,  or  a  bit  of  sharp  steel,  and  should  have  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  able,  without  ques- 
tions, to  write  a  description  of  the  mineral  under  these 
heads :  AVeight,  Structure,  Color,  Transparency,  Hardness. 

Teach  them  the  term  '•'  cleavage." 

The  uses  of  clay  and  its  independent  discovery  by 
different  nations  for  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  an  ex- 
cursion to  a  brick  yard,  or  in  default  of  this,  the  com- 
parison of  brick  clay,  an  unbaked  brick,  which  may  be 
afterwards  baked,  and  a  baked  brick,  all  easily  procured 
by  the  teacher,  will  make  excellent  supplementary  lessons. 

Review  thoroughly  and  compare  the  three  minerals,  — 
mica,  feldspar,  quartz.  In  what  form  does  each  exist  in 
the  soil  ?     Of  what  use  is  each  to  the  soil  ?     Why  ? 


184  NATURE   STUDY 


LITERATURE 

The  stories  and  poems,  illustrating  the  power  of  water 
and  frost,  already  given  under  these  heads  are  appro- 
priate here : 

Stony  and  Rocky,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  "World. 
Pebbles,  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 

ANIMALS 
Worms  : 

One  of  the  earliest  signs  of  spring  is  the  presence  in 
the  morning  of  fresh  earthworm  castings.  They  are  to  be 
found  everywhere,  both  in  the  city  and  in  the  country, 
and  tell  a  great  deal  of  the  life  history  of  a  most  inter- 
esting animal. 

The  thin  iridescent  cuticle  of  the  earthworm  is  chitin- 
ous  or  horny.  The  rings  are  much  larger  in  front  and 
rather  flattened  at  the  other  end,  Avhich  commonly  re- 
mains in  the  burrow.  Along  the  back  and  underneath 
may  be  seen  blood-vessels.  The  bristles,  by  means  of 
which  it  moves,  are  arranged  in  double  rows  along  each 
side  of  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body.  Every  segment, 
except  the  first  and  last,  has  four  pairs  of  bristles. 

The  popular  opinion,  that  each  part  of  a  bisected  earth- 
worm walks  off  and  becomes  a  new  worm,  is  not  true. 
Only  the  head  portion  is  capable  of  regenerating  the 
other  part.  Although  not  so  low  in  the  scale  as  this 
prevalent  superstition  would  indicate,  they  cannot  see  or 
hear,  and  have  only  a  feeble  sense  of  smell,  as  Darwin's 
and  Henson's  many  experiments  prove.  They  show 
some  intelligence  in  lining  their  burrows,  usually  seizing 
leaves,  etc.,  by  their  pointed  ends.  Leaves  serve  not 
only  to  line  and  to  plug  the  burrow,  but  also  for  food. 


MARCH 


185 


The}'  feed,  likewise,  upon  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil, 
which  they  swallow  in  great  quantities,  and  eject  in  the 
form  of  the  familiar  "  castings."  •  They  are  extraordi- 
narily numerous  in  all  humid  regions,  a  fact  that  we 
scarcely  realize  because  they  live  in  their  burrows  dur- 
ing the  day,  emerging  only  at  night  for  food  and  to  work. 
In  cold  or  dry  weather  they  are  entirely  quiescent. 


\F 


Egg  Capsule 


Worm  escaping 
from  Capsule 


It  has  been  estimated  that  about  ten  tons  of  earth  in 
each  acre  of  ground  pass  annually  through  their  bodies 
in  places  where  they  are  numerous.  By  this  means 
fresh  surfaces  are  kept  continually  exposed  to  the  action 
of  carbon  dioxide  and  the  humus  acids,  and  thus  decom- 
posed and  disintegrated. 

Moreover,  these  '•  castings  "  are  distributed  either  by 


186  NATURE    STUDY 

rolling  or  by  the  action  of  the  wind  or  by  rain,  so  that 
the  worms  are  thus  constantly  levelling  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

Worms  prepare  the  ground  excellently  for  seedlings. 
They  sift  the  soil,  so  that  no  stones  larger  than  they  can 
swallow  are  left  in  it.  They  mix  it,  as  does  a  gardener 
who  wishes  to  prepare  fine  soil  for  his  choicest  plants. 
They  cover  up  bones,  etc.,  thus  bringing  them  in  a  more 
or  less  decayed  state  within  reach  of  the  roots.  They 
cover  seeds  which  lie  upon  the  surface,  thus  giving  the 
radicle  a  leverage ;  and,  last  of  all,  their  burrows  facili- 
tate the  penetration  of  the  roots. 

Says  Darwin :  "  The  plough  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  most  valuable  of  man's  inventions ;  but,  long  before 
he  existed,  the  land  was,  in  fact,  regularly  ploughed  by 
earth  worms.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  there  are 
many  other  animals  which  have  played  so  important  a 
part  in  the  history  of  the  world  as  have  these  lowly 
organized  creatures." 

Birds : 

Stray  robins  and  bluebirds  remain  with  us  in  Phila- 
delphia all  winter.  In  the  latter  part  of  February  those 
who  have  gone  farther  south  begin  to  straggle  up,  stay- 
ing with  us  for  a  short  time,  but  usually  going  further 
north.  In  March,  the  robins,  bluebirds,  and  crow  black- 
birds become  quite  common.  The  red-winged  black- 
bird and  the  meadow  lark  are  also  to  be  found  in 
their  favorite  haunts. 

All  of  these  birds  eat  insects,  a  story  plainly  revealed 
by  their  long,  narrow  bills.  They  are,  of  course,  all 
perchers. 


MARCH 


187 


The  American  Robix,  when  it  first  comes  from  the 
south,  sings  most  freely  at  noon  or  in  the  afternoon ; 
but  later,  when  the  weather  is  mild  enough  to  warrant 
such  early  rising,  it  begins  its  song  at  dawn.  It  is  not 
a  very  intelligent  bird,  often  building  its  heavy,  bulky, 
mud-lined  nests  on  branches  not  capable  of  supporting 
such  a  weisjht. 


American  Robin. 

The  eggs,  perhaps  the  best  known  of  all  birds'  eggs, 
are  four  in  number,  and  of  that  peculiar  blue  green 
color,  known  as  robin's  egg  blue. 

The  robin  belongs  to  the  Thrush  family ;  its  usual 
length  is  ten  inches. 


Bluebird  :  These  birds  are  found  only  in  America.  The 
coloring  of  the  male  is  much  more  vivid  than  that  of  its 


188 


NATURE   STUDY 


mate.  Both,  however,  are  blue  above  and  rusty  red  under- 
neath. "When  Nature  made  the  Bhiebird,"  says  Bur- 
roughs, in  "  Wake  Hobin,"  "  she  wished  to  propitiate 
both  the  earth  aaid   sky,  so  she  gave  him  the  color  of 


Bluebird. 


one  on  his  back  and  the  hue  of  the  other  on  his  breast, 
and  ordained  that  his  appearance  in  the  spring  should 
denote  that  the  strife  and  war  between  these  two  ele- 
ments was  at  an  end.  He  is  the  peace  harbinger ;  in 
him  the  celestial  and  terrestial  strike  hands  and  are  fast 
friends." 


MARCH 


189 


The  bluebird  measures  seven  inches.  In  building  the 
nest,  they  choose  by  preference  a  bird  house,  a  hole  in  a 
tree,  or  some  place  that  will  afford  the  children  sufficient 
protection  without  too  much  exertion  on  their  part.  Their 
eggs  are  pale  blue,  from  four  to  six  in  number. 

They,  too,  belong  to  the  Thrush  family;  but  their 
song  is  more  like  the  Warblers'. 

Crow  Blackbird  :    These  are  the  largest  of  all  the 


Crow  Blackbird,  or  the  Purple  Crackle. 


190  NATURE   STUDY 

spring  birds  mentioned,  measuring  from  twelve  to  thir- 
teen inches  in  length. 

The  color  is  iridescent  black ;  their  eyes,  conspicu- 
ously yellow.  They  journey  in  immense  flocks,  their  dis- 
cordant cry  and  peculiar  manner  of  flying  making  them 
a  very  prominent  feature  of  the  landscape. 

Their  nests  are  well  built,  and  their  eggs,  which 
vary  greatly,  are  peculiarly  marked  and  streaked,  brown 
on  a  light-colored  groundwork.  They  are  universally 
hated  by  the  farmer,  who  unjustly  accuses  them  of 
destroying  his  cornfield.  They  help  him,  however, 
by  destroying  great  quantities  of  insects.  They  are 
sometimes  called  Keel  birds,  from  the  use  which  they 
make  of  the  tail  in  flying,  and  sometimes  the  Purple 
Grackle. 

Bird  Migrations  : 

To  this  most  interesting  siibject,  allusion  has  been 
already  made,  but  it  seems  worth  while  again  to  state 
some  of  the  facts.  It  is  a  subject  much  discussed  and 
not  even  yet  thoroughly  investigated. 

There  are,  popularly  speaking,  three  classes  of  bjrds 
in  any  given  locality,  —  permanent  residents,  migrants 
from  the  south,  migrants  from  the  north.  These  terms 
are  only  relative,  since  the  so-called  permanent  residents 
travel  about  more  or  less  extensively  during  the  cold 
season,  and  even  the  truly  migratory  birds  of  one  local- 
ity may  be  residents  in  another. 

The  great  cause  of  migration  is  probably  failure  in 
the  food-supply.  Therefore,  in  many  families,  it  is  the 
young  who  initiate  the  southward  migration ;  but  it  is 
the  male,  urged  on  by  his  nest-building,  family-founding 
instinct,  who  is  the  first  to  return  to  the  north.     In  most 


MARCH  191 

cases,  the  birds  pursue  the  same  path  year  after  year, 
and  it  is  a  very  common  observation  that  they  even 
return  to  the  same  tree  season  after  season.  As  Weiss- 
mann  says,  they  have  ''  an  inherited  talent  for  geogra- 
phy " ;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  their  method  of  flight, 
higli  in  the  air,  gives  them  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
country  beneath,  enabling  them  to  use  as  landmarks 
what  to  us  below  are  simply  indistinguishable  parts  of 
a  mixed  and  complete  whole. 

Three  or  four  times  as  many  birds  leave  us  in  the  fall 
as  return  to  us  in  the  spring,  so  that  the  loss  of  life  in 
migrations  must  be  large. 

Method : 

In  preparing  the  children  to  study  the  earthworm, 
take  them  out  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  finding  signs 
of  spring.  These,  of  course,  will  be  the  buds  and  the 
earthworm  castings.  Tell  the  children  to  bring  in  as 
many  different  kinds  of  the  latter  as  they  can  find. 
They  will  gather  all  sizes  and  shapes,  wet  ones  and 
those  which  have  dried. 

Describe  what  you  have  brought  in.  Why  are  some 
of  them  moist  while  others  are  dry  ?  Where  did  they 
come  from  ? 

City  children  are  often  unable  to  answer  the  last 
question,  and  I  have,  in  consequence,  usually  sus- 
pended the  lesson  here,  sometimes  telling  them  that 
if  they  wished  to  know,  they  might  find  out  if  they 
watered  the  place  towards  dusk,  and  watched  to  see 
what  animal  came  out.  This  little  experiment  explains 
to  them  what  they  have  already  observed  —  the  numer- 
ous earthworms  to  be  seen  in  the  spring  mornings  after 
a  storm. 


192  NATUKE   STUDY 

Earthworms  may  be  kept  in  a  pot  in  the  schoolroom, 
fed  on  cabbage  leaves  and  other  vegetables,  of  which 
they  are  very  fond.  The  pot  should  be  kept  fairly 
moist.  Cover  it  with  a  piece  of  glass  and  black  paper ; 
then  when  the  latter  is  suddenly  removed,  they  may  be 
seen  at  work. 

Strangely  enough,  children  do  not  seem  to  object 
to  touching  earthworms,  but  bring  in  willingly  many 
specimens.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  handle 
them,  however,  on  the  earthworm's  account,  not  on 
theirs. 

If  the  teacher  shall  deem  it  advisable,  each  child  may 
have  a  specimen  to  study,  keeping  it  in  a  small  box 
partly  filled  with  moist  earth. 

About  how  long  is  the  earthworm?  Where  is  it 
largest  round  ?  What  difference  between  the  head  and 
tail  end  ?  How  does  it  move  ?  What  does  the  saddle 
look  like  ?  What  color  is  the  skin  ?  What  difference 
in  color  between  the  upper  and  lower  sides  ?  Between 
the  head  end  and  the  tail  end  ?     Why  ? 

Notice  the  blood-vessel  in  the  back.  Which  way  does 
the  blood  travel  ?     How  many  beats  per  minute  ? 

In  the  study  of  the  birds  procure  nests  and  stuffed 
birds  if  possible.     If  not,  colored  pictures  will  answer. 

In  each  case  let  the  children  determine  the  habit 
and  the  food  of  the  animal  by  the  study  of  its  beak  and 
feet. 

Get  from  them  their  own  experience  and  observation 
of  the  particular  bird  under  consideration,  and  add  to 
these  your  own. 


i 


MARCH  193 


LITERATURE 

The  usual  reading  books  are  full  of  stories  of  the  birds. 

Adaptations  from  Ruskin's  Queen  of  the  Air  and  Burrough's 
books,  notably  Wake  Robin,  are  possible. 

Little  Brothers  of  the  Air,  Olive  Thorne  Miller,  and  Merriani's 
Birds  through  an  Opera  Glass  give  suitable  stories  for  children. 

Seaside  and  Wayside,  No.  II.,  has  an  interesting  account  of  the 
earthworm. 

Additional  Stories  and  Myths  : 

How  the  Robin  Got  his  Red  Breast,  Indian  Myth,  Whittier. 
The  Unknown  Land,  Mrs.  Gatty's  Parables  from  Nature. 
The  Storks,  Andersen. 

Birds  of  Killingworth,  Longfellow's  Tales  of  a  AVayside  Inn. 
The  Little  Worm  that  was  Glad  to  be  Alive,  Elizabeth  Feabody, 
Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World. 

Easy  Poems: 

Out  of  the  Sky,  1     ^       t.  ^     ,     i.n        t  •* 

rr.,     c.        .  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life 

The  Secret,  [       .  '' 

How  the  Birds  Fii'st  Learn  to  Sing,  J  ^' 

Birds'  Thoughts,  Emilie  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World. 

Morning  Song,  Tennyson,  from  Sea  Dreams. 

The  Coming  of  Spring, 

Brother  Robin, 

A  Song  of  Spring, 

If  Ever  I  See,  Lydia  Maria  Child,  j 

A  Bird's  Nest,  J 

„.,.,',,    I  Walker's  Songs  and  Games. 
Birdie's  Ball,  J 

All  the  Birds  Have  Come  Again,  Eleanor  Smith's  Songs  for  Little 

Children. 

If  the  Bluebirds  Bloomed,  St.  Nicholas  Songs. 

More  Difficult  Poems: 

Sir  Robin,  I  Lucy  Larcom. 

Sister  and  Blue  Bird,  J 


\  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 


194  NATURE   STUDY 

In  the  Lilac  Bush  (Robin),  I  ^^jj^  Thaxter. 

The  Robin,  i 

Return  of  the  Birds,  Bryant. 

Trumpeter  Redbreast,  from  Lilliput  Levee. 

Extract  from  Owl  Against  Robin,  Sidney  Lanier. 

Winter  Robin,        1 

Robin  Badfellow,  i  T.  B.  Aldrich. 

Robin,  J 

Warbling  of  the  Black  Birds,  Jean  Ingelow. 

Bluebird,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 

Robin,      I  p,jj^jjy  Dickinson. 

Bluebird,  J 

A  September  Robin,  Miss  Mulock. 

A  Remembrance  of  Autumn,  Adelaide  Procter. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

APRIL 

Easy  Poems: 

Now  the  Xoisy  Winds  are  Still,  1^  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life  is 
Au  April  Girl,  J      Young. 

April  Showers,  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 
April,  Songs  for  Little  Children,  Eleanor  Smith. 

More  Difficult  Poems: 

In  April,       I  Lovgjoy,,  Xature  in  Verse. 

April  Fools,  J 

April,  Alice  Cary. 

An  April  Welcome,  Phoehe  Cary. 

April  Day,  Longfellow. 

April,  Whittier. 

April,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

April,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

Spring. 

Myths  and  Stoj'ies: 

Ceres  and  Proserpine. 

Bi-j-nhild. 

White  Man's  Foot,  Hiawatha. 

Sleeping  Beauty. 

Legend  of  the  Spring  Beauty,  Emei-son's  Indian  Myths. 

Easy  Poems: 

The  Sap  Has  Begun  to  Flow,  |  Eleanor  Smith's  Songs  for  Little 
Spring  Song,  No.  I.,  /     Children. 

105 


196  NATUEE   STUDY 

Spring  Song,  No.  II.,  )  Eleanor    Smith's   Songs    for 

All  the  Birds  Have  Come  Again,  )      Little  Children. 

Out  of  the  Sky,  Mrs.  Dodge's  When  Life  is  Young. 

Spring  Song,  ] 

A  Spring  Song,        I  .     ,    ^^ 

.  <-.     •      HT     .•        f  Lovejoy's  Nature  m  Verse. 
A  Spnng  Meeting,  •'  •' 

A  Song  of  Spring,  J 


More  Difficult  Poems: 

A  Song  of  Easter,  Celia  Thaxter. 

Extracts  From  the  Progress  of  Spring,  i  „ 

,,    ,     o     •  i      o7  V  Tennyson. 

Early  Spring,  J  •' 

Extract  from  the  Song  of  the  Sower,  1 

Extract  from  the  New  and  the  Old,      \  Bryant. 

Return  of  the  Birds, 

Return  of  Spring,  Longfellow. 

The  First  Flowers,  Whittier. 


STONES 
Granite. 

Facts : 

Granite  is  an  igneous,  Plutonic  rock ;  that  is  to  say,  it 
was  formed  by  the  action  of  fire  in  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  the  kingdom  of  Pluto.  Just  how  it  was  made  is 
still  a  matter  of  dispute.  It  has  been  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  the  oldest  of  all  the  rocks,  the  foundation 
stone  of  the  earth,  because  it  is  known  to  constitute 
whole  mountain  ranges.  Nevertheless  granite  is  some- 
times formed  to-day  from  the  molten  mass  thrown  out 
of  volcanoes.  Still,  there  can  be  no  question  that  granite 
is  of  very  ancient  origin. 

Because  of  its  crystalline  structure,  we  know  that  it 
must  have  been  originally  a  highly  heated,  molten  mass, 
which    cooled   slowly.      By  reason   of  its  compactness, 


APRIL  197 

we  judge  that  the  cooling  must  have  taken  place  under 
great  pressure. 

The  essential  constituents  of  granite  are  feldspar  and 
quartz.  Usually  either  mica  or  hornblende  is  present, 
more  commonly  the  former. 

Feldspar  is  always  the  most  prominent  constituent, 
and  gives  to  the  granite  its  distinctive  color,  —  white, 
gray,  red,  pink. 

Method  : 

This  stone  is  so  much  used  for  building  that  pieces  of 
it  are  easily  procured  in  sufficient  quantities. 

Is  this  rock  made  up  of  one  or  several  minerals  ?  How 
many  ?  What  colors  ?  Investigate  the  black  mineral. 
Is  it  hard  or  soft  ?  What  is  its  structure  ?  its  lustre  ? 
its  name?  Investigate  the  pink.  What  is  its  name? 
How  do  you  know  ?  Investigate  the  third  mineral. 
What  is  its  name  ?     How  do  you  know  ? 

Of  what,  then,  is  granite  composed  ?  Where  is  it 
found  ?  What  is  it  used  for  ?  Wliy  ?  Does  it  ever 
make  soil  ?  How  ?  Describe  the  appearances  of  this 
soil. 

Gneiss. 
Facts  : 

This  is  the  commonest  and  therefore  the  most  important 
of  all  the  rocks.  It  is  undeniably  of  very  ancient  origin ; 
but  whether  of  aqueous  or  igneous  structure  is  not  yet 
settled.  It  is  often  found  with  the  habit  of  granite,  and 
even  passing  into  it  by  gradual  transitions.  It  is  also 
often  found  with  the  habit  of  an  aqueous  rock,  of  which, 
indeed,  it  may  be  only  a  metamorphosis. 

Like  granite,  it  is  composed  of  feldspar,  quartz,  and 


198  NATURE   STUDY 

mica;  but  the  mica  is  more  abundant  than  in  granite, 
and  is,  in  the  typical  gneiss,  arranged  in  layers.  Because 
of  this  layering,  gneiss  is  not  nearly  so  valuable  a  build- 
ing stone,  since  it  tends  to  break  and  to  disintegrate 
along  the  line  of  the  soft  mineral. 

Method  : 

The  probabilities  are  that  long  before  you  are  ready 
to  teach  gneiss,  the  children  will  have  brought  in  speci- 
mens. The  freshly  broken  specimens  are  pretty  enough 
to  attract  them ;  and  in  city  streets,  where  building  of 
any  sort  is  going  on,  large  heaps  of  gneiss  are  to  be 
found. 

In  what  respect  is  this  stone  like  granite  ?  How 
different  ?  Is  it  as  good  a  building  stone  as  granite  ? 
Why  not  ?  Does  it  make  soil  ?  How  ?  What  does  this 
soil  look  like  ? 

Mica  Schist. 
Facts  : 

The  origin  of  mica  schist  is  wrapped  in  the  same 
obscurity  that  surrounds  that  of  gneiss. 

It  differs  from  gneiss  in  the  presence  of  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  mica,  occurring  in  larger  pieces  and  in  wider 
layers.  Quartz  may  be  present,  or  feldspar,  or  both.  It 
is  very  apt  to  contain  other  minerals,  such  as  garnets. 

Because  of  the  abundance  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
mica,  it  has  small  value  as  a  building  stone. 

Method : 

Specimens  of  mica  schist  are  almost  as  easily  found  as 
those  of  gneiss. 

In  what  respects  is   this   stone   like   granite  ?     How 


APRIL  199 

different  from  it  ?    Like  gneiss  ?    Different  from  it  ?     Is 
it  used  for  building  ?     Why  not  ?     For  what  is  it  used  ? 
Does  mica  schist  make  soil  ?     How  ?     What  kind  of 
soil  ? 

PLANTS 
Buds  : 

If  the  teacher  has  secured,  properly  cared  for,  and 
used  the  unopened  buds  of  March,  she  has  prepared  the 
children  for  the  delights  of  watching  the  growing  living 
green  of  the  twigs  and  buds  of  April. 

Frequent  short  excursions  should  be  made  to  the  differ- 
ent trees  of  the  neighborhood,  and  some  time  devoted  to 
letting  the  children  tell  of  other  buds  Avhich  they  are 
watching  at  home  or  on  the  Avay  to  school. 

After  the  buds  have  opened  will  be  an  excellent  time 
to  begin  the  systematic  study  of  whatever  trees  may  be 
in  the  neighborhood.  The  teacher  must  search  for  them 
and  study  them  herself.  To  help  her  in  this,  I  give  below 
short  accounts  of  the  commoner  trees. 

American  Linden,  or  Basswood  (Tilia  Americana)  : 

"And  all  around  the  Lime  feathers  low, — 
The  Lime,  a  summer  home  of  murmurous  wings." 

Most  of  the  characteristics  of  the  leaf,  its  veining  and 
margin,  of  the  flower,  fruit,  and  tree  are  suliiciently 
shown  by  the  drawings. 

In  addition  to  these,  notice,  in  living  specimens,  the 
tiny  tufts  of  russet  down  in  the  axils  of  the  veins  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf ;  the  smooth  bark ;  the  fragrance 
of  the  flowers,  which  are  full  of  honey  and  very  attrac- 
tive to  bees ;  and  the  long,  ribbon-like  bract,  which  aids 
in  the  wind  distribution  of  the  fruits.     Its  wood  is  light 


200 


NATURE   STUDY 


and  tough.  It  is  much  used  for  the  panels  of  carriages 
and  wagons  and  the  sounding-boards  of  pianos.  It  is 
the  best  wood  for  carving. 

"  Smooth  Linden  best  obeys 
The  carver's  chisel ;  best  his  curious  work 
Displays  in  nicest  touches." 

Most  of  the  famous  carvings  at  Windsor  Castle,  Chats- 
worth  House,  St.  Paul's,  were  made  in  linden  wood. 


Linden  leaves  and  flowers. 


It  makes  an  excellent  charcoal.  Its  inner  bark  is  used, 
to  some  extent,  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  ropes.  It 
was  from  the  long  fibres  of  this  bark  that  the  tree 
received  its  name  —  line  tree,  or  linden. 

The  handsomest  street  of  Berlin,  Unter  den  Linden, 
was  so  called  from  its  double  row  of  these  trees. 

In  Freiburg  there  still  stands  a  very  ancient  linden  sup- 
ported by  stone  pillars.  Through  its  hollow  trunk  grows 
a  younger  tree,  presumably  a  scion  of   the  older  one. 


APRIL  201 

The  story  is,  that  the  parent  came  origiually  from  a  twig 
carried  by  a  young  native,  who,  in  his  anxiety  to  bring 
the  good  news  of  the  victory  of  Morat  back  to  Freiburg, 
forgot  his  wounds  and  weakness.  He  had  only  the 
strength  to  gasp  out,  "Victory,"  before  he  died.  This 
same  story  is  paraphrased  from  Euripides  by  Browning 
in  the  "  Dramatic  Idylls." 

An  old  tree  in  Germany  has  given  its  name  to  the 
town.  No  one  knows  its  age,  but  its  trunk  is  nearly 
sixty  feet  in  circumference ;  and  its  branches,  extending 
in  every  direction  a  hundred  feet,  are  supported  by  at 
least  a  hundred  pillars  of  wood  and  stone. 

The  American  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana) : 

The  great  beauty  of  this  tree  is  due  partly  to  the 
arching  character  of  its  boughs,  and  partly  to  the  fringed 
appearance  of  its  drooping  branchlets. 
These  peculiarities  give  to  it  a  distinc- 
tive grace,  enabling  any  one  to  recog- 
nize the  tree,  even  at  night  or  in  winter. 
In  addition  to  the  shape,  the  margin, 
and  the  veining  of  the 
leaf  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing, notice,  in  the  living 
specimen,  the  harsh- 
ness of  the  texture  of 
the  leaf. 

The    flowers    appear 
before  the  leaves,  and  even  the  winged  fruit  is  mature 
before  their  full  expansion. 

Its  wood,  very  hard  and  strong,  is  preferred  to  any  for 
the  hubs  of  wheels. 

Elm  trees  are  characteristic  features  in  New  England 


202  NATURE   STUDY 

landscapes.  New  Haven  is  often  called  the  City  of  Elms, 
but  many  other  New  England  towns  are  shaded  by 
avenues  of  elms  of  almost  equal  beauty. 


It  was  under  an  elm  tree,  still  standing  in  Cambridge, 
that  Washington  took  command  of  the  American  army, 
July  3,  1775.  Under  another  elm  —  probably  the  Euro- 
pean elm  —  Penn  concluded  his  famous  treaty  with  the 
Indians  on  the  Delaware  near  Philadelphia. 

The  European  elm,  often  seen  here  in  cultivation,  lacks 
the  grace  and  distinction  of  its  American  cousin.  It  sel- 
dom attains  a  greater  height  than  fifty  feet  in  this  coun- 
try, but  in  England  it  is  a  noble  tree.  No  one  who  has 
been  to  Windsor  Castle  will  ever  forget  the  avenue  of 


APRIL 


203 


elms  planted  by  Charles  the  Second,  —  sixteen  hundred 
and  sixty  of  them,  the  number  marking  the  date  of  his 
accession  to  the  throne. 

The  bark  of  the  slippery  elm  is  "well  known.  The 
tree  has  the  characteristic  elm  leaf,  but  is  larger  and 
much  rougher  than  the  American  elm. 

The  Birches  : 

The  drawing  of  the  leaf  of  either  the  red,  yellow,  or 
black  birch  resembles  that  of  the  elms,  but  the  leaves 
themselves,  instead  of 
being  rough  and  hairy, 
are  shiny. 

The  leaves  of  the  cut- 
leaved  European  birch, 
of  the  white  birch,  and 
of  the  canoe  birch  are 
very  unlike  the  others. 
There  is,  however,  no 
difficulty  in  picking  out 
members  of  the  Birch 
family,  since  the  bark 
of  all  of  them  has  the 
unmistakable    horizon- 
tal markings  so  notice- 
able in  the  bark  of  canoe 
birch. 

The  birches  are  grace- 
ful trees.  Several  of 
them  are  valuable  for 
timber,  and  most  of  them  for  fuel.  One  of  them  gives  the 
oil  to  which  is  due  the  distinctive  odor  of  Eussia  leather. 
All  of  them  are  beautiful  ornaments  in  any  landscape. 


204 


NATURE   STUDY 


The  white  birch  (Betula  populifoUa)  is  the  one  most 
likely  to  be  seen  in  the  city,  partly  because  of  its  rapid 
growth,  even  in  unfavorable  situations,  and  partly  be- 
cause its  light  and  airy  grace  and  the  beautiful  green  of 
its  leaves  make  it  a  desirable  addition  to  lawns. 

"  Most  beautiful  of  forest  trees, 
The  Lady  of  the  woods." 


white  or  Gray  Birch. 


Paper  or  Canoe  Birch. 


The  canoe  or  paper  {B.  papyracea)  is  the  best  known 
of  all  the  birches,  because  of  its  striking  white  bark 
which  separates  easily  from  the  trees,  and  lends  itself 
to  many  uses. 

Of  this  Michaux  gives  an  interesting  account : 
"  In  Canada  and  in  the  district  of  Maine,  the  country 
people  place  large  pieces  of  it  immediately  below  the 
shingles  of  the  roof,  to  form  a  more  impenetrable  cover- 
ing for  their  houses ;  baskets,  boxes,  and  portfolios  are 
made  of  it,  which  are  sometimes  embroidered  with  silks 


APRIL  205 

of  different  colors ;  divided  into  very  tliin  sheets,  it 
forms  a  substitute  for  paper,  and  placed  between  the 
soles  of  the  shoes,  and  in  the  crown  of  the  hat,  it  is  a 
defence  against  humidity.  But  the  most  important  pur- 
poses to  which  it  is  applied,  and  one  in  w^hich  it  is  re- 
placed by  the  bark  of  no  other  tree,  is  the  construction 
of  canoes.  To  procure  proper  pieces,  the  largest  and 
smoothest  trunks  are  selected.  In  the  spring  two  cir- 
cular incisions  are  made  several  feet  apart,  and  two 
longitudinal  ones  on  opposite  -sides  of  the  tree,  after 
which,  by  introducing  a  wooden  wedge,  the  bark  is 
easily  detached.  These  plates  are  usually  ten  or  twelve 
feet  long,  and  two  feet  nine  inches  broad.  To  form  the 
canoe,  they  are  stitched  together  with  fibrous  roots  of 
the  white  spruce,  about  the  size  of  a  quill,  which  are 
deprived  of  the  bark,  split,  and  suppled  in  water.  The 
seams  are  coated  with  resin  of  the  balm  of  Gilead. 
Great  use  is  made  of  these  canoes  by  the  savages  and 
the  French  Canadians  in  their  long  journeys  into  the 
interior  of  the  country ;  they  are  very  light  and  are 
easily  transported  from  one  lake  or  river  to  another, 
which  is  called  the  portage.  A  canoe,  calculated  for 
four  persons  with  their  baggage,  weighs  from  forty  to 
fifty  pounds.  Some  of  them  are  made  to  carry  fifteen 
passengers." 

Birch  bark  was  also  used  for  '•  rind  tents "'  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  These  were  sewed 
together  with  the  white  spruce  roots,  and  were  used 
the  whole  year  round,  requiring  but  a  short  time  —  a 
half  hour  —  to  pitch,  and  being  an  efficient  protection 
against  both  the  cold  and  the  sun. 

The  black  birch,  often  called  cherry  birch,  may  be 
immediately  recognized  by  the  birchlike  appearance  of 


206  NATUKE   STUDY 

the  bark,  and  the  agreeable  spicy  odor  and  taste  of  both 
bark  and  leaves.  It  is  found  most  frequently  in  the 
mountains,  and  is  highly  valued  for  its  wood,  which  is 
extremely  beautiful,  much  used  for  furniture  and  also 
for  fuel. 

The  Poplars  and  the  Willows  : 

These  trees  form  a  natural  family  of  striking  characters, 
and  have  many  and  important  uses.  Both  are  remarkable 
for  the  size  and  length  of  their  roots,  for  their  fondness 
for  water,  for  their  easy  propagation,  and  for  their  hold 
on  life. 

Their  buds,  flowers,  and  methods  of  fertilization  have 
been  already  spoken  of. 

The  best-known  poplars  are  the  Balsam  Poplar  {Popii- 
lus  halsamifera  var.  candicans),  North  Carolina  Poplar 
(P.  monilifera),  the  White  Poplar  (P.  alba),  and  in  some 
places  the  Lombardy  Poplar  (P.  dilatata),  and  the  Aspen, 
or  Popple  (P.  tremidoides),  as  it  is  called  by  the  country 
people. 

The  balsam  poplar  is  a  great  favorite  in  cities,  because 
it  makes  a  good-sized  tree  sooner  and  more  surely  than 
any  other.  But  its  branches  are  very  brittle,  breaking 
in  the  wind,  and  its  roots  are  apt  to  find,  penetrate,  and 
fill  up  any  but  iron  drainpipes. 

Its  fragrant  buds  are  very  attractive  in  the  spring,  and 
also  its  reddish,  caterpillar-like  flowers.  Nevertheless  it 
would  be  better  to  use  it  chiefly  to  act  as  a  screen  and 
shelter  to  young  and  more  valuable  trees. 

The  Carolina  poplar,  also  known  as  the  necklace 
poplar,  because  of  the  resemblance  of  its  long  catkin  of 
matured  fruits  to  the  beads  of  a  necklace,  has  also  been 
called,  for  obvious  reasons,  the  Virginia,  the  Swiss,  and 


APRIL 


201 


the  black  Italian  poplar.     In  general  appearance  it  re- 
sembles the  balsam  poplar ;  the  chief  difference  between 


North  Carolina  Poplar. 


White  Poplar. 


208 


NATURE   STUDY 


the  trees  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  buds  of  the  Carolina 

poplar  are  almost  free  from  balsam. 

The  bark  and  leaf  of  the  white  poplar  are  markedly 

different  from  any  of  the  others.     The  bark  is  bright  in 

color,  but  much  roughened  with  black  markings.     Tlie 

leaves  are  white  and  downy  underneath. 

It  is  said  that  when  Hercules  destroyed  the  robber, 

Cacus,  in  the  'cavern,  on  a  poplar-covered  mountain,  he 

was  so  full  of  joy  at  his  success  that  he  tore  a  branch 

from  a  tree  and  wound  it  around 
his  head.  Soon  afterwards  he 
visited  the  infernal  regions, 
where  the  smoke  blackened  the 
upper  and  exposed  side  of  the 
leaves,  while  the  under  side  were 
bleached  by  the  perspiration  of 
his  forehead. 

It  is  currently  believed  that 
when  the  tree  turns  the  white 
side  towards  you,  it  is  a  sign  of 
rain. 

The  Lombardy  poplar  is  one 
of  the  most  picturesque  of  all 
our  trees,  slender,  tall,  with 
upward  pointing  branches.  It 
does  not  produce  seed.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  planted  by 
the  French  wherever  they  have 
settled.  It  is  the  hero  of  the 
legend  of  the  Poplar  Tree  and 
the  Pot  of  Gold. 
The  American  aspen  is  characterized  by  the  restless 

quivering  motion  of  its  leaves,  due  to  the  long,  slender 


Lombardy  Poplar. 


APRIL 


209 


leaf  stalks  and  common  to  all  the  poplars,  although  more 
marked  in  this  species.  This  movement  has  been  com- 
pared to  that  of  women's  tongues  "  which  seldom  cease 
wagging." 

Homer  says  of  Penelope's  maidens : 

"Their  busy  fingers  wove 
Like  poplar  leaves  when  Zephyr  fans  the  grove." 

Every  one  knows  Scott's 

"And  variable  as  the  shade 
By  the  light  quivering  Aspen  made." 


Black  Willow. 

hybridized  so  much 
that  it  is  often  dif- 
ficult to  separate 
from  each  other  the 
different  species. 


Coat  Willow. 


Weeping  Willow 


210 


NATURE   STUDY 


Long  Beaked  Willow. 


Heart  Leaved  Willow. 


APEIL 


211 


Probably  the  Goat  {Salix  caprea),  the  Weeping  (S.  baby- 
lonica),  the  Black  {S.  nigra),  the  White  {S.  alba),  and  the 
Long  Beaked  {S.  rostrata)  are  among  the  more  distinc- 
tive and  better  known  willows. 

The  goat  willow  is  frequently  seen  in  lawns.  It  fur- 
nishes the  foundation  for  the  weeping  uinbrella-like  tree 
called  Kilmarnock  Willow.  Tlie  catkins  appear  long  be- 
fore the  roundish  leaves,  and,  in  ripening,  show  better 
than  any  other  ''  pussies  "  either  the  yellow  stamens,  or 
the  two-horned  pistils,  of  which  they  are  composed. 

The  wood  of  the  willow  makes  the  best  of  charcoal, 
and  is  used  in  medicine ;  but  it  finds  its  greatest  commer- 
cial value  in  the  manufacture  of  wicker  work. 


The  Oaks: 

"The  monarch  Oak,  the  patriarch  of  trees, 
Shoots  rising  up,  and  spreads  by  slow  degrees ; 
Tliree  centuries  he  grows,  and  three  he  stays 
Supreme  in  state,  and  in  three  more  decays." 


Oak. 


212 


NATURE   STUDY 


Both  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Greece  and  of  Britain 
worshipped  the  oak;  and  in  all  ages,  among  all  people, 
the  majesty  and  beanty  of  the  tree  has  made  it  the  glory 

of  the  woods  and  the 
recipient  of  the  ad- 
miration of  men. 

Its  fruit,  the  acorn, 
was  an  important  ar- 
ticle of  food  to  the 
early  inhabitants  of 
'Europe,  and  is  still 
sold  for  that  purpose 
in  parts  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor and  Spain.     In 
our  own  country,  the 
bear,  the  raccoon,  the 
squirrel,    the     wood 
pigeon,     and     the 
swine     fatten     on 
them.      The   bark 
is  used  for  dyeing 
and    tanning.     The 
bark  of  the  Spanish 
cork    oak    gives    us 
cork.     But  the  most  valuable  product  of  all  is  the  wood, 
which   for   strength,  hardness,  and  durability  is  unsur- 
passed. 

There  are  still  standing  in  England  oaks  known  to  be 
from  a  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  years  old. 

In  an  old  oak  in  Boscobel  Eorest,  King  Charles  II. 
remained  successfully  concealed  for  a  day  after  the 
battle  of  Worcester,  from  which  circumstance  the  oak 
became   a   Stuart   emblem.      The   day    of   accession   of 


APRIL 


Pin  Oak 


Black  Oak. 


214 


NATURE   STUDY 


Charles  was  long  celebrated  as  a  holiday,  under  the  name 
of  Royal  Oak  Day. 

The  Yule  log,  half  burnt  at  each  of  the  great  feasts  of 
the  Druids,  Avas  of  oak. 


Red  Oak. 
a.  Acorns,  first  year ;  c.  Acorns,  second  year. 

The  Round  Table  of  King  Arthur,  still  shown  at  Win- 
chester, alleged  to  be  genuine,  is  a  cross-section  of  an 
old  oak  tree,  eighteen  feet  in  diameter. 

The  Greeks  believed  it  to  be  the  first  tree  that  grew  on 


APRIL 


215 


earth,  and  the  Greeks,  Eomans,  and  Germans  considered 
it  sacred  to  the  king  of  the  gods,  called  by  them,  respec- 
tively, Zeus,  Jupiter,  Thor. 

A  chaplet  of  oak  leaves  was  the  highest  honor  that 
could  be  given  to  a  Roman  soldier. 

Next  to  the  Charter  Oak,  perhaps  the  most  famous 
American  oak  is  the  one  near  Fishkill,  on  the  Hudson, 
under  Avhich,  it  is  said,  Washington  used  to  mount  his 
horse.     Even  then  it  was  famous  for  its  age. 

In  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  of  the  trees  that  ripen 
their  acorns  within  a  year,  the  best  known  are  the  white 
and  chestnut  oaks  ;  within  two  years,  the  black,  red,  and 
the  pin  oaks. 

The  oak  is  peculiarly  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects. 
Several  different  species  produce 
on  them  various  galls,  or  large 
swollen  masses,  caused  by  irri- 
tation of  the  plant  tissue,  and 
in  the  centres  of  which  are  the 
eggs  of  the  gall  insect.  From 
a  tincture  made  from  boiling 
certain  kinds  of  these,  on  the 
addition  of  copperas,  ink  is 
made. 


The  Beech: 

The  bark  of  the  beech,  a  fa- 
vorite subject  with  painters,  is 
a  smooth  bluish  gray,  sprinkled 
with  round  ash-colored  spots. 
The  tree  often  retains  its  yel- 
low withered   leaf   all   Avinter. 


Beech. 


These   facts,   combined 


with  its  peculiar  bowl  shape,  especially  marked  in  the 


216  NATURE    STUDY 

young  tree,  and  the  long,  spindle-shaped  pointed  buds, 
make  it  easily  recognizable  even  in  Avinter. 

The  Copper  Beech,  closely  related,  if  not  identical,  to 
our  own,  made  up  those  Birnam  woods,  whose  approach 
was  to  foretell  the  death  of  Macbeth. 

The  Chestnut  has  been  already  fully  described.  See 
pp.  71-73. 


Buttonwood.  leaf  and  ball. 


The  Buttonwood  or  Sfcamore  (Platanus  Occidentalis) : 

This  is  the  largest  and  loftiest  of  all  our  native  trees. 
Its  broad  spreading  branches  and  large  leaves  form  a 


APRIL  217 

dense  foliage  for  which  it  is  chiefly  esteemed,  no  part  of 
it  being  of  any  particular  commercial  value. 

Xo  tree  is  easier  to  identify.  Its  leaves,  bark,  flowers, 
fruits,  all  are  characteristic. 

In  spring  the  new  shoots  and  leaves  are  covered  with 
a  copious  down,  which  is  gradually  shed  during  the  first 
season,  except  from  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  and  at 
the  joints  of  the  stem. 

The  pistillate  flowers  make  a  globular  ball,  five-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  afterwards  forms  the  but- 
ton-ball, or  fruit  cluster,  which  often  swings  on  the  tree 
by  its  long  slender  stem  the  greater  part  of  the  winter. 
The  stamiuate  flowers  are  on  a  slender  thread,  one  or  two 
inches  in  length. 

The  brown  gray  bark  of  the  buttonwood  peels  off  each 
year  in  thin,  broad,  brittle  pieces,  showing  the  light  buff, 
fresh  bark  beneath. 

The  sycamores,  still  standing,  celebrated  by  Whittier 
in  his  poem  of  that  name,  were  planted  by  the  ]\[errimac, 
where  now  stands  the  town  of  Haverhill,  nearly  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty  years  ago.  Under  their  shade  passed 
Washington  in  his  triumphal  journey  to  the  Xorth  in 
1789,  and  it  was  underneath  them  that  AMiittier  planned 
out  his  poem  of  Skipper  Ireson's  Ride. 

The  Oriental  Sycamore,  often  planted  in  our  parks  and 
closely  resembling  the  buttonwood,  was  a  great  favorite 
with  all  European  nations ;  from  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans,  who  are  said  to  have  nourished  it  with  pure 
wine,  to  the  Italians,  Spaniards,  and  French,  who,  in 
early  times,  were  compelled  to  pay  for  the  pri^'ilege  of 
sitting  beneath  its  shade. 

It  is  said  that  the  famous  general,  Xerxes,  was  so 
delighted  with  a  beautiful  tree  of  this  kind  that  grew  in 


218 


NATURE   STUDY 


Asia  Minor  that  he  camped  a  huge  army  of  a  hundred 
and  seventy  thousand  soldiers  under  its  shade,  and  there 
kept  them  day  after  day.     When  finally  he  could  remain 

no  longer,  he  deco- 
rated it  with  neck- 
laces, collars  of  gold, 
and  jewels,  leaving 
some  of  his  soldiers 
in  charge  of  it. 

These  are  the  trees, 
too,  which  the  Greeks 
planted      in      groves 
round    their    schools 
striped  Maple,  and  academies. 

The  Maples  : 

This  is  a  most  important  family  of  trees,  giving  us 
not  only  magnifi- 
cent shade  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  distinc- 
tive beauty  of  our 
autumn  woods,  but 
also  a  large  variety 
of  useful  products, 
including  sugar  and 
timber.  The  wood 
is  used  for  fuel  and 
in  manufacture,  be- 
ing both  durable 
and  wonderfully 
beautiful. 

The  commonest  of 

the  maples*  are  the  Silver  or  white  Maple. 

*  In  the  Middle  Atlantic  States. 


APRIL  .  219 

Striped  Maple  (Acer  Pennsylvanicum),  easily  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  its  vertically  striped  bark,  and  large, 
thin,  three-pointed,  double-toothed  leaf ;  the  Silver  Maple 
(A.  dasycarpiim),  with  the  under  side  of  its  five-lobed  leaf 


Norway  Maple. 

distinctly  silver  white,  and  its  almost  weeping  branches; 
the  Red  Maple  (^.4.  rubruni),  with  its  red  flowers,  its  red- 
dish branches,  and  the  bright  dark  red  of  its  young  twigs ; 
the  Norway  Maple  (A.  j)Jatanoides),  with  its  beautiful 
green   flowers,    coming   from   exquisitely   colored    buds. 


220 


NATURE   STUDY 


green,  delicately  lined  with  bronze,  a  leaf  somewhat  re- 
sembling that  of  the  sngar  maple,  and  frnit  with  widely 

divergent  wings; 
the  sycamore  ma- 
ple (A.  pseudo- 
plataims),  called 
in  England  the 
sycamore,  with 
its  green  incon- 
spicuous flowers, 
oddly  winged 
fruit,  and  rather 
sycamore-like 
leaf. 


The  Sugar  or  Kock 
Maple  {A.  saccliarinum) 
deserves  a  paragraph  to 
itself.  Its  wood  is  very 
hard,  and  extensively 
used  in  cabinet  work. 
The  most  beautiful  form 
which  it  takes,  called, 
from  obvious  resem- 
blances, bird's-eye  mar 
pie  and  curly  maple,  is 
caused    by    rather    rare  Red  Maple. 

conditions,  in  which  the  wood  vessels  become  twisted  or 
deflected  from  their  naturally  straight  course. 


APRIL 


221 


The  sugar  maple  should  not  be  tapped  before  it  is 
twenty-iive  years  old,  but  the  process  may  be  repeated 
annually  without  apparent  injury  to  the  tree.  Open 
winters  are  supposed  to  make  the  sweetest  sugar,  and 
much  freezing  and  thawing  to  be  necessary  to  the  abun- 
dant production  of  its  best  quality.     The  sap  season  con- 


sular Maple. 

tinues  for  six  weeks,  but  in  this  time  there  may  not  be 
more  than  fifteen  really  good  sap  days.  These  are  clear 
bright  days,  with  a  westerly  wind  and  frosty  nights. 

The  farmer  taps  the  tree  with  a  three-quarter-inch 
auger,  and  into  the  hole  thus  made  puts  an  iron  or  wooden 
spout,  from  which  is  suspended  the  pail.  This  receives  the 
sweet  sap,  which  flows  at  the  rate  of  about  seventy  drops 
per  minute  when  it  runs  most  rapidly.  The  usual  amount 
of  sap  given  by  a  tree  in  a  season  is  twenty-five  gallons, 
which  yields  about  five  pounds  of  sugar.  Formerl}',  the 
sap  was  boiled  in  long  pans  over  a  bricked-in  log  fire, 
but  nowadays  it  is  put  in  one  end  of  a  patent  evapo- 
rating machine  as  sap,  and  comes  out  at  the  other  as 
syrup. 


222 


NATURE   STUDY 


AiLANTHus  (Ailanthus  glandulosus) : 

The  only  objection  to  this  tree  is  the  fact  that  the 
staminate  flowers  which  appear  in  June  are  offensive  in 
their  odor.  There  is,  unfortunately,  no  way  of  telling 
whether  a  tree  will  bear  stamens  or  pistils  until  it  has 
grown  up.      It  is  said  that  of  a  large  lot  of  trees  from 


Ailanthus,  branch,  under  side  of  leaf  showing 
the  glands  of  the  leaflets. 


the  same  stock,  planted  at  the  same  time,  those  in  Kew 
York  turned  to  be  pistillate,  while  in  Philadelphia  all  of 
the  trees  bore  the  ill-smelling  sterile  flowers.  It  is  a 
rapidly  growing,  easily'  propagated,  graceful  tree  with 
pinkish  or  pale-green  winged  seeds.  In  China  it  is  called 
the  Tree  of  Heaven.  The  handsome  ailanthus  still  stand- 
ing in  Bartram's  Gardens,  Philadelphia,  was  planted  in 
1809  from  a  sucker  of  the  first  tree  brought  into  this 
countrj^. 


APRIL 


223 


Locusts  : 

The  Common  Locust  {Robina  Pseudacacia)  and  the 
Honey  Locust  (Gleditschia  triacanthos)  are  frequently 
found,  even  in  city  streets. 

The  "wood  of  the  locust  has  considerable  commercial 
value.     The  heart  of  the  tree  is  liable  to  the  attacks 
of   insects   so   that  it  is  very  seldom  that  one   sees   a 
tree  without  a  dead  or 
dying  limb,  although  the 
leaves  seem  to  be  singu- 
larly exempt  from   dis- 
eases of  all  kinds. 

As  the  structure  of 
the  fragrant,  beautifid 
flowers  and  of  the  fruit 
plainly  shows,  the  lo- 
custs belong  to  the  Legu- 
minosae,  or  Pea  family. 

The  honey  locust  is  so 
called  from  the  greenish 
yellow  sweet  pulp  which 
fills  the  space  in  the  pods 
between  the  seeds.  This 
is  much  relished  by  chil- 
dren, who,  however,  wait  until  the  fruit  drops,  not  ven- 
turing to  climb  a  tree  so  well  protected  with  its  numerous 
clusters  of  triple  thorns. 

The  seeds  are  very  hard,  brown,  and  shiny.  Children 
call  them  "  burning  stones,"  rubbing  them  to  make  them 
hot. 

The  leaves  are  bipinnately  compound,  but  it  is  not 
unusual  to  find  every  transition  back  to  the  parent  type 
of  a  once  pinnately  compound  leaf. 


Locust,  leaf  and  flower  clusters. 


224 


NATURE   STUDY 


nate  leaves;  fruits 
whose  covering  is 
used  for  dyeing  and 
whose  sweet  and 
wholesome  kernel 
abounds  in  oil. 
Their  wood  is  very- 
valuable. 

The  Ash  is  sec- 
ond in  the  value 
of  its  timber  only 
to  the  oak,  which 
it  resembles  in 
the    grain    of    its 


The  tree  itself 
is  very  large  and 
much  handsomer 
than  the  common 
locust. 

The  Walnuts  a.nd 
Hickories  : 

These  trees  are 
closely  related,  bo- 
tanically  and  eco- 
nomically. Both 
are  lofty  timber 
trees,  with  aromat- 
ic,   compound-pin- 


Shagbark  Hickory 


APRIL 


225 


wood.     The  fruits  are  particularly  interesting  from  their 
modifications  for  wind  distribution. 

Horse-chestnuts  and  Buckeyes  : 

Many  of  the  details  of  the  horse-chestnut  have  been 
given  under  the  buds  in  the  previous  chapter. 

In  general  the  buckeyes  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  horse-chestnut  by  the 
fact  that  their  leaves  have 
only  five  leaflets,  instead 
of  seven,  and  are  much  less 
woolly  in  the  bud. 

The  names,  Hyacinth 
Tree  and  Giant's  Nosegay, 
very  well  express  its  stately 
and  beautiful  effect  in  the 
spring,  when  its  erect  clus- 
ters of  flowers  bloom  forth 
from  their  dark  green 
ground,  like  burning  lamps 
on  a  huge  chandelier.  In 
London,  the  blooming  of 
the  horse-chestnut  is  an- 
nounced in  the  papers,  and 
crowds  of  people  go  out  to 
Bushey  Park,  Hampton 
Court  (Wolsey's  old  palace),  to  see  its  avenues  of  mag- 
nificent trees. 

Very  few  of  the  flowers  ripen  into  fruit,  which  is  a 
large  prickly  ball  of  green.  It  splits  open  into  three 
chambers,  each  of  which  should  contain  a  seed;  but  as  in 
the  case  of  the  sweet  chestnut,  often  one  or  two  of-  them 
grow  at  the  expense  of  the  others. 

Q 


Black  Ash. 


226 


NATUliE   STUDY 


Method  : 

The  best  way  to  study  the  trees  is,  without  doubt,  by 
making  numerous  short  excursions,  for  which  the  chil- 
dren have  been  prepared,  and  to  which  they  go  armed 


->■, 


i&? 


Horse-chestnut. 


to  lectioo  of  teail 


with  note-books  and  pencils  to  search  for  definite  infor- 
mation. 

Usually  I  have  drawn  or  shown  the  leaf,  teaching  its 
name.  •  Then  after  showing  the  children  the  importance 
of  indicating  correctly  the  height  of  the  tree,  the  height 


APRIL  227 

of  its  trunk  above  ground,  and  its  general  outline,  I  sent 
them  out  to  draw  the  tree  as  a  whole.  I  also  required 
them  to  make  a  note,  at  the  same  time,  of  the  color  and 
character  of  the  bark,  and  any  other  distinctive  features. 

These  points  were  then  discussed  in  school,  and  later, 
drawings  made  of  the  leaves,  or  flowers,  or  sometimes  of 
branches.  These  may  be  gathered  fresh  each  year,  as 
indicated  below,  or  better  still,  the  first  supply  may  be 
pressed,  mounted  on  cards,  and  used  year  after  year. 
The  secret  of  pressing  so  as  to  preserve  the  color  is  to 
choose  young  leaves  in  June,  or  earlier,  and  to  dry  them 
rapidly  by  changing  the  driers,  or  newspapers,  every  day, 
or  oftener  for  the  first  few  days. 

To  mount  them  securely,  use  plenty  of  fish-glue,  press- 
ing each  part  carefully  down. 

After  studying  a  number  of  trees,  the  children  may 
make  a  plan  of  the  locality,  marking  the  names  of  the 
various  trees  there  found,  labelling  each  by  drawing  below 
it  the  leaf. 

A  reproduction  of  one  of  these  plans  just  as  it  was 
handed  in  by  the  pupil  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

In  addition  to  the  numerous  excursions,  the  talks  on 
the  uses  of  the  trees,  and  the  drawing  lessons,  the  teacher 
may  also  make  use  of  the  language  and  literature  lessons, 
to  serve  not  only  their  own  purposes,  but  also  to  make 
each  tree  a  living  reality  to  the  child. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  think  that  they  cannot 
manage  the  excursions,  I  submit  the  following  plan  : 
Gather  four  or  five  times  as  many  leaves  as  there  are 
children,  sprinkle  them  slightly,  roll  them  up  in  a  strij) 
of  old  cotton  or  other  thin  cloth,  and  place  them  in  a 
tight  tin  box,  or  covered  jar. 

For  the  first  lesson  direct  their  observation  by  asking 


228  NATURE   STUDY 

questions  which  they  must  answer  silently,  such  as  the 
following:  How  many  parts  are  there?  What  is  the 
color  of  each  part  ?  Describe  with  one  word  the  surface. 
Turn  the  leaf  over ;  what  do  you  observe  with  reference 
to  the  color  and  the  surface  of  the  under  side  ?  Look  at 
the  margin  of  the  leaf.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  upper 
and  also  of  the  lower  surface,  indicating  with  words 
anything  additional  you  may  have  observed.  Collect 
drawings. 

For  the  second  lesson,  place  on  the  board  outline  draw- 
ings of  the  leaf  studied.  Teach  the  terms  "  blade,"  "  leaf 
stalk,"  "veins."  Erase  drawings  and  words,  give  out 
fresh  leaves,  and  conduct  an  oral  language  lesson  on 
the  points  to  which  their  observation  was  directed  the 
first  day.  Have  them  taste  the  leaf,  first  the  stalk, 
then  the  blade.  Ask  if  it  has  any  odor.  If  not,  let 
them  suggest  that  crushing  and  bruising  will  bring 
out  whatever  perfume  it  may  have.  Guard  them  against 
the  rather  dangerous  practice  of  tasting  everything 
within  reach.  Give  out  paper.  Ask  them  to  make 
other  drawings,  naming  the  parts,  adding  to  it  in  words 
whatever  they  cannot  show  with  the  pencil.  After- 
wards allow  them  to  compare  the  first  work  with  the 
second. 

Give  to  each  child  a  small  note-book.  These  may  be 
purchased  in  quantities  for  a  cent  each.  To  each  at- 
tach securely  a  pencil.  On  the  first  page  let  each  make 
a  map  of  the  route  from  his  home  to  the  school.  Give 
to  each  child  another  leaf,  and  ask  him  to  put  in  his 
plan  every  tree  bearing  these  leaves  which  he  sees  on 
the  way  home.  Send  him  a  second  time,  to  find  out 
which  of  these  is  the  most  beautiful,  and  why.  Let  this 
be  his  tree,  and  let  him  gradually  learn  all  that  he  can 


APRIL  229 

about  it:  its  height,  breadth,  and  general  shape;  the 
height  above  the  ground  at  which  it  begins  to  branch ;  the 
direction  taken  by  the  branches;  the  bark;  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  branches,  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves, 
the  buds,  and,  if  possible,  the  flower,  fruit,  and  wood. 

•LITERATURE 

Myths  and  Stories  : 

Apollo  and  Daphne. 

Baucis  and  Philemon. 

Pan  and  Apollo. 

The  Vine  and  the  Oak,  Emerson's  Indian  Myths. 

Old  Piper  and  the  Piper  of  the  Dryad,  Frank  Stockton. 

The  Walnut  Tree  that  Wanted  to  Bear  Tulips,  Wiltse's  Stories. 

Last  Dream  of  the  Old  Oak,  Andersen. 

Legend  of  the  Poplar,  Marah  Pratt's  Fairy  Land  of  Flowers. 

Oak  and  the  Ivy,  Eugene  Field. 

Poems : 

The  Birch  Tree, 

The  Oak, 

The  Beggar,         \  Lowell. 

Rhoecus, 

The  Maple, 

Hiawatha's  Canoe,  Longfellow. 

Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree,  i  „ 

-n-       ^xi  >  Bryant. 

lorest  Hymn,  J 

The  Tree,  Bjornsen. 

The  Tree,  Jones  Very. 

The  Early  Spring  Flowers  : 

Of  these,  the  following,  all  of  which  may  be  easily 
obtained,  even  in  the  city,  should  certainly  be  taught  in 
every  classroom : 

Spring  Beauty  (Claytonia  Vircjinica),  the  Trailing  Ar- 
butus {Epigcea  repens),  the  Common  Blue  Violet  (Viola 


230 


NATURE   STUDY 


cHcullata),  the  Quaker  Lady  (Houstonia  ccerulea),  and  the 
Cherry  Blossom. 

If  it  is  possible  to  get  the  material,  the  children  should 
know,  at  least  by  name,  the  hepatica,  bloodroot,  the 
anemones,  and  the  dogtooth  violet. 


The  Spring  Beauty  :  This,  like  all  of  the  other  early 
spring  flowers,  has  nourishment  ready  to  be  turned  into 

available  food,  just  as  soon  as 
a  little  warm  rain  furnishes  a 
first  cause  and  means. 

In  this  case  the  starch  is 
stored  in  a  small,  deep  tuber 
from  which  comes  the  root. 

The  number  and  peculiarities 
of  the  leaves,  the  structure  of 
the  flowers,  and  of  the  flower 
clusters  are  easily  made  out. 
The  stamens  ripen  before  the 
pistils,  so  that  we  do  not  find 
the  stigma  three  cleft  until  the 
stamens  have  discharged  their 
pollen.  Tliis  means,  of  course, 
that  the  ovules  must  be  fertil- 
ized by  pollen  from  other  flow- 
ers. 

It  received  its  botanical 
name  {Claytonia  Virginica)  from  John  Clayton,  who 
established  in  Virginia  the  first  botanical  garden  in 
America. 

To  the  same  family  belong  portulacca  and  the  pusley, 
hated  by  the  gardeners  because  of  the  trouble  that  it 
gives  in  weeding  it  out. 


Spring  Beauty. 


APRIL  231 

Trailing  Arbutus  :  The  fragrance  of  the  flower  at 
once  betrays  both  to  the  insect  and  the  botanist  the  store 
of  honey  within.  The  inside  of  tlie  corolla  is  densely 
covered  with  fine,  soft  hairs,  which  serve  to  close  its 
tube,  perhaps  from  the  rain  that  would  dilute  the 
honey,  or,  perhaps,  from  unwelcome  visitors  who  would 
pilfer  from  the  flower  its  sweets,  giving  nothing  in 
return. 

On  examining  a  number  of  different  clusters,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  smaller,  less  widely  opened  flowers  are 
the  only  ones  which  have  the  five  long  branches  to  the 
stigma  which  make  it  look  like  a  little  star,  and  that 
in  these  flowers  the  stamens  are  apt  to  be  short  and 
without  anthers.  In  the  flowers  in  which  the  stigmas 
are  short  the  stamens  are  well  developed.  This  looks 
as  if  the  floAvers  were  actually  becoming  unisexual,  since, 
if  it  continues  on  the  road  on  which  it  has  plainly  started, 
there  will,  eventually,  be  flowers  with  pistils  only,  and 
other  flowers  with  only  stamens. 

It  is  one  of  the  plants  which  has  never  been  success- 
fully transplanted.  For  this  reason  botanists  have  tried, 
but  failed,  to  find  a  trace  of  parasitic  root  connection. 

It  belongs  to  the  Heath  family,  in  which  are  also  found 
the  azalea,  rhododendron,  blueberry,  huckleberry,  winter- 
green,  and  mountain  laurel. 

Common  Blue  Violet  :  The  flowers  of  the  violet  have 
all  of  them  something  of  the  same  markings  that  are  to 
be  found  in  their  cultivated  cousin,  the  pansy.  These  all 
lead  to  the  spur,  and  are  followed  by  insects  in  search  of 
honey.  But  there  is  very  little  nectar  in  the  early  violet, 
although  it  is  quite  abundant  in  the  pansy. 

The  appendages  of  the  two  lower  stamens  project  into 


■232 


NATURE   STUDY 


the  spur,  and  secrete  the  honey.  In  getting  at  this,  the 
bee  thrusts  the  anthers  apart.  These,  thereupon,  deposit 
on  him  some  of  their  pollen.  This  cannot  be  left  on  the 
pistil,  because  of  the  liiJ  (which  will  be  evident  to  any  one 
who  examines  it  carefully),  but  it  is  left  in  the  stigmatic 
cavity  of  the  next  flower  to  which  it  goes. 


Uiikijrsgnil  llii«e( 


Common  Blue  Violet. 


Strange  to  say,  the  greater  portion  of  the  good  seed  of 
the  violet  is  not  produced  in  the  flowers  thus  elaborately 
cross-fertilized,  but  in  underground  flowers,  which  look 
like  small  green  bud.s,  and  which  never  open. 


APRIL 


233 


the  four  stamens 
are  much  more 
evident.  Quaker 
ladies,  in  truth, 
are  the  first,  wliile 
the  latter  might 
be  called  Quakei 


Quaker  Ladies  :  These  pretty  little  flowers,  also 
called  bluets,  innocence,  blue-eyed  babies,  bright  eyes, 
are  always  great  favorites  with  children. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  larger  flowers  have  in 
the  cup  an  obviously  two-branched  stigma,  while  in 
the  smaller  flower  „ 

W  (^ 

&\ 

kei-  <*<N     U' 
gentlemen,  for  the  ^^  1 

long-styled  flowers  only     \\ 
set  seed  when  fertilized       U 
by  the  pollen  from  the       ^, 
long  stamens.  / 

The  Cherry  has  been 
sufficiently  described  on      ^        '        ^"^  ^'^ 

^  _„  Flower  with  loner  pistil:    flower  with  short 

Hepatic  A :  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  at- 
tractive of  the  spring  flowers.  The  furry  flower  buds 
open  before  the  leaves,  although  there  are  always  num- 
bers of  last  year's  leaves  to  be  found.  The  colors  of  the 
flowers  vary  greatly,  and  in  accordance,  mostly,  with 
their  situation  with  reference  to  the  sunlight,  although  it 
is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  find  pink,  blue,  and  white 
flowers  on  the  same  plant.  Strictly  speaking,  there  is 
no  corolla,  the  calyx  taking  its  place,  while  what  seems 
to  be  a  calyx,  the  three  leaves  at  the  base  of  the  flowers, 
is  really  an  involucre. 


234 


NATUKE    STUDY 


Bloodroot ; 


Secure,  if  you  can,  the  whole  plant,  show- 
ing thg  thick  root  stock  with  this 
year's  plant,  and  the  bud  for  the 
next.  Particularly  beautiful  is  the 
development  of  the  leaf,  which  is 
rolled  round  the  flower  bud.  The 
calyx,  made  up  of  two  sepals, 
soon  drops  off. 

The  reason  for  its  popular  name 
is  very  evident  to  one  who  handles 
any  part  of  the  plant. 

To  the  same  family  belong  also 
the  poppies. 


Qi-^^^'" 


Bloodroot. 


Dogtooth  Violet; 

This   is    not  a   rela- 
tive of  any  of  the  vio- 
lets, but  belongs  to  the 
Lilies.     The  flowers  are  built 
up  on  the  plan  of  three,  the 
leaves    are    parallel    veined. 
Therefore  it   belongs   to   the 
one-seed-leaved    plants,    such 
as    grass,    corn,    wheat,    etc., 
which  the  children  have  already  studied. 

The  plants  themselves,  with  their  cu- 
riously spotted  leaves,  are  very  pretty, 
which  is  fortunate,  because,  for  some  reason 
or  other,  comparatively  few  of  them  seem 
ever  to  flower. 


Dogtooth  Violet. 


APRIL  235 

Methods . 

Make  a  point  always  of  the  fact  that  these  flowers 
bloom  early  because  of  the  abundant  supply  of  nourish- 
ment ready  for  their  use,  stored  up  by  the  plant  the  year 
before. 

The  general  method  for  the  study  of  flowers  in  general 
is  sufficiently  treated  on  p.  22  et  seq. 

LITERATURE 

Myths  and  Stories : 

Little  Ida's  Flowers,  Andersen. 

Legends  of  the  Arbutus,  )^  ,    t    i-      ht  ^i 

^  *      ,     ^  ,     „     .      -r.       .      \  Emerson's  Indian  Myths. 
Legend  of  the  Spring  Beauty,  J 

Easy  Poems : 

,    ^,  ^  ,  ,     ^  ,1  Eleanor  Smith's 

The  Little  Flower  Came  from  the  Ground,  \  „  .     ^  ..  ^, 

I-  Songs  for  Little 
The  Flower  Bed,  j  ^j^.,"^^^^_ 

Plant  Household,  1^^.^^  Poulsson's  In  the  Child's  World. 

Little  Plant,  i 

Calling  the  Violet,  Lucy  Larcom. 

More  Difficult  Poems  : 

The  Voice  of  the  Grass,  Mary  Howitt, 

The  Grass,  Emily  Dickinson. 

Jack-in-the-pulpit,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 

Violet,  Barry  Cornwall. 

Yellow  Violet,  Bryant. 

The  First  Flower,  1 

Trailing  Arbutus,  \  "Whittier. 

May  Flower, 

A  Laughing  Chorus, 

The  Violet,  J.  Tayl 

The  Daffodils,  Wordsworth. 

The  Daffodils,  Herrick. 


„     ,'     I  Loveioy's  Nature  in  Verse, 
raylor,  /  ''  ^ 


236 


NATURE   STUDY 


ANIMALS 

The  necessary  facts  with  reference  to  the  animals  to 
be  studied  this  month  —  moths,  butterflies,  beetles,  bees 
— have  already  been  given  in  the  first  chapter. 

In  the  fall  the  adult  insects  and  larval  forms,  whether 
caterpillars  or  grubs,   going  into  winter  quarters  were 

studied.  Now  these  win- 
ter quarters  and  the  emerg- 
ing adult  form  should  be 
given  the  chief  considera- 
tion. 

The  best  material  for 
this  purpose  is  the  large 
Cecropia  cocoon.  This 
may  be  cut  open  after  the 
moth  emerges.  The  out- 
side covering  is  plainly 
impervious  to  moisture. 
Within,  it  is  a  loose  mass 
of  silk,  beyond  which  is 
another  coat  like  the  first. 

Cecropia  cocoon.    Cocoon  cut  open.        J^side    of    this    there    still 

remains  the  cast-off  skin  of  the  caterpillar  and  pupa, 
within  which  took  place  all  the  marvellous  changes 
through  which  a  wormlike  creature  was  transformed 
into  one  of  our  most  beautiful  moths. 

The  two  sexes  of  the  Cecropias  may  be  easily  distin- 
guished one  from  the  other  by  the  size  of  the  antennae, 
which,  in  the  case  of  the  male,  are  very  broad  and 
feathery. 

They  live  at  the  best  not  much  longer  than  three  weeks, 
during  which  time  they  eat  nothing.  They  mate  freely, 
even  in  confinement.    The  large  light  eggs  hatch  into 


APRIL  237 

tiny  caterpillars,  which  should  be  kept  in  a  moist  cage 
with  plenty  of  fresh  maple  leaves  for  food.  This  cater- 
pillar, however,  is  much  less  discriminating  in  his  choice 
of  food  than  many  of  his  relatives,  and  Avill  eat  a  great 
many  different  kinds  of  leaves. 

It  is  comparatively  easy  to  raise  broods  of  caterpillars, 
if  they  can  be  safely  guided  beyond  the  first  moult. 
Moisture  and  abundant  food  are  the  two  chief  requisites. 


CHAPTER   IX 
MAY  AND  JUNE 


Easy  Poems 
May, 


Signs  of  May,  }^«^^J°y'^  ^^^""'^  ^"  ^^^^«- 


More  Difficult  Poems : 

Extract  from  Lowell's  Under  the  Willows.  ' 

May,  Celia  Thaxter.  I 

PLANTS 

In  May  and  Jnne  should  be  continued  the  study  of  the 
trees  already  described  in  Chap.  VIII. 

The  children  should  also  learn  to  distinguish  between 
ferns,  mosses,  lichens,  and  toadstools,  and  something  of 
the  structure  of  each. 

The  following  flowering  plants  should  be  studied :  Dan- 
delion, daisy,  apple,  strawberry,  buttercup,  and  clover. 
If  it  is  desired  to  add  to  this  number,  take  jack-in-the- 
pulpit,  shepherd's  purse,  chickweed,  or  sheep's  sorrel. 
These  are  suggested  not  because  of  their  greater  interest, 
but  because  of  the  fact  that  except  the  first,  children  will 
find  them  growing  even  in  city  streets. 

The  Dandelion  (Taraxacum  officinale). 

Facts : 

The  dandelion  has  a  very  thick  tap  root,  which,  like 
the  rest  of  the  plant,  is  full  of  milky  juice.     The  leaves 

238 


MAY   AND   JUNE 


239 


are  long,  sessile,  and  coarsely  toothed.  When  it  grows  in 
good  soil  and  in  grass,  its  leaves  reach  upwards ;  but  in 
barren  soil  they  s^jread  out  over  the  ground  in  the  form  of 
a  rosette,  thus  pre-empting  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  land  to  its  own  use,  and  suffering  thereby  no  loss  of 
necessary  light,  since  there  are  no  other  plants  to  shade  it. 
It  belongs  evidently  to  the  Composites  (see  p.  24  et  seq.). 


Dandelion. 


Its  flowers  are  all  strap-shaped.  Like  all  of  the  other 
members  of  this  order,  they  are  adapted  to  cross-fertiliza- 
tion by  insects ;  yet  close  fertilization  is  possible,  since 
the  branches  of  the  style  bend  backwards  until  they  make 
a  spiral,  thus  exposing  the  inside  stigmatic  surface,  which 
is  the  only  part  of  the  pistil  on  which  the  pollen  will 
send  out  its  tube.  Some  arrangement  like  this  is  neces- 
sary, since  the  dandelion  begins  to  bloom  before  the  in- 
sects are  active,  and  continues  in  blossom  long  after  they 
have  disappeared. 


240 


NATURE   STUDY 


The  pappus  (calyx  teeth)  is  carried  up  above  the 
ovary  in  the  fruit,  thus  making  a  balloon  easily  blown 
about  by  the  wind. 

The  involucre  not  only  protects  the  flowrets  in  the  bud, 
but  at  night,  or  during  a  rain,  closes  around  them.  It 
performs  the  same  office  for  the  ripening  fruits,  which 
are  often  further  protected  by  the  bending  downwards  of 
the  stem.     When  they  are  fully  ripe,  this  rises  again. 


Stigma 


Fruit 

Dandelion,  cross  section  of  receptacle  surrounded  by  involucral  leaves, 
flower,  fruit. 

thus  aiding  in  the  distribution  of  the  fruits.  What 
wonder  that  a  plant  so  marvellously  protected  during  its 
whole  history,  and  with  so  many  efficient  devices  for  the 
wide  distribution  of  its  fruits,  should  be  one  of  our  com- 
monest weeds! 

Daisy  (Chrysanthemum  leucanthemum) : 

This  plant  belongs  to  the  Composites  also,  but,  unlike 
the  dandelion,  has  both  disk  and  ray  flowers.  The  ray 
flowers  have  no  stamens.      Perhaps  for  this  reason,  in 


MAY   AND   JUNE  241 

compensation,  the  corolla  is  larger.  These  floAvers  serve 
not  only  to  render  the  daisy  more  conspicuous,  but  also 
protect  the  fertile  disk  flowers  in  the  bud  and  at  night. 

The  daisy  is  easily  propagated  from  the  root.  This 
makes  it  very  difficult  to  get  rid  of,  since  the  spade  only 
increases  the  number  of  plants. 

It  is  detested  by  the  farmer,  to  whose  fields  it  does  a 
great  deal  of  harm  by  almost  exterminating  the  more 
valuable  grass  crop. 

Method : 

The  points  given  on  p.  238  et  seq.  should  be  made  clear. 
Teach  the  whole  plant,  as  well  as  the  flowers,  making  use 
of  blackboard  or  hektograph  drawings. 

At  least  two  lessons  should  be  devoted  to  the  dandelion. 

Apple. 
Facts  : 

Like  the  Cherry,  the  numerous  stamens  are  inserted 
with  the  petals  on  the  throat  of  the  calyx.  The  base  of 
the  calyx,  however,  is  united  with  the  base  of  the  pistil, 
or  ovary  (seed  box),  which  has  five  cells  with  two  ovides 
in  each  cell. 

The  odor  and  beauty  of  the  flower  indicate  the  pres- 
ence of  nectar  to  the  botanist  and  the  bee.  It  is  very 
abundant. 

After  fertilization  takes  place,  the  petals  and  stamens 
fall  off,  and  the  whole  energy  of  the  flower  is  devoted  to 
the  making  of  the  fruit.  The  walls  of  the  ovary  thicken 
somewhat,  but  the  greatest  change  takes  place  in  that 
part  of  the  calyx  which  is  adherent  to  the  ovary.  It 
finally  makes  up  the  greater  portion  of  the  flesh  of  the 
apple.     The  five  lobes  of  the  calyx,  with  the  five  branches 


242 


The  Apple  :  I.  Blossoms  and  leaves.  II.  Vertical  section  of  the  flower,  showing 
pistil,  stamens,  petals,  sepals.  111.  Flower  after  the  petals  have  fallen. 
IV.  Small  green  apple.  V.  Section  of  apple,  showing- the  eye  (pistil  and  calyx 
tips',  thickened  ovary  (core),  and  thickened  calyx.  VI.  Cross  section  of  the 
same. 


MAY   AND    JUNE 


243 


of  the  pistil  carried  upward,  together  constitute  the  eye 
of  the  apple. 

A  cross  section  of  the  apple  shows  the  ten-seeded,  five- 
celled  ovary  separated  from  the  thickened  calyx  by  a 
green  line.  In  vertical  section  this  separation  of  ovary 
and  calyx  is  demonstrated  more  clearly  still.  , 

The  green  of  the  apple  changes  into  more  brilliant  col- 
ors as  the  sun  ripens  it, 
thus  making  it  attractive 
to  the  small  boy  and 
other  animals,  who,  in 
return  for  the  pleasure 
that  it  gives  them,  un- 
consciously aid  in  the 
distribution  of  its  seed. 
These,  protected  by  their 
hard,  shiny  coats,  easily 
survive  both  the  damp 
and  cold. 


Method  : 

Teach  the  blossoms 
in  season,  pursuing  the 
same  method  indicated 
on  p.  22  et  seq.  for  other 


\ 


Work  of  the  Codlin  Worm.     Larva. 
Codlin  Moth. 


Pupa. 


flowers.     Later  use  the 
small    green   apples,  to- 
gether with  cross  and  longitudinal  sections  through  ripe 
apples,  to  make  clear  this  most  interesting  story. 

Lay  emphasis  on  the  law  of  compensation,  here  shown 
in  the  fall  of  the  petals  and  consequent  devotion  of  the 
energies  of  the  plant  to  the  manufacture  of  fruit. 


244 


NATUKE   STUDY 


Strawberry, 

Faxits : 

This  belongs  to  the  same  family  (the  Rose)  as  the 
apple  and  cherry.  Like  them,  the  petals  and  numerous 
stamens  are  inserted  on  the  throat  of  the  calyx,  which  in 
this  case  consists  of  ten  lobes  (apparently),  and  is  entirely 
free  from  the  very  numerous  one-ovuled  pistils,  which 
form  a  head  on  a  large  receptacle. 


Strawberry. 


After  the  petals  and  stamens  fall,  the  juices  of  the 
plant  feed  the  receptacle,  which  becomes  fleshy  and,  as 
it  ripens,  usually  red  in  color,  bearing  all  over  its  surface 
the  numerous  yellow  fruits.  These  are  widely  distributed 
by  the  birds  and  other  animals,  who  devour  the  so-called 
berry,  but  through  whose  alimentary  tract  the  real  fruits 
pass  undigested. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  strawberry  is  propa- 
gated by  runners,  —  long,  slender  stems  which  root  at  a 


MAY  AND    JUNE 


245 


distance  from  the  parent  plant,  thus  forming  new  indi- 
viduals. 

To  the  Eose  family,  besides  the  three  already  men- 
tioned and  the  rose  itself,  belong  the  following  common 
plants :  pear,  quince,  peach,  plum,  livelinger,  shadbush, 
hawthorn,  blackberry,  and  rasp- 
berry. 

Buttercup  (Ranunculus  bulbo- 
sus)  : 

This  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  the  hepatica  and 
anemones.  The  name  of  the 
family  —  Crowfoot  —  perhaps 
refers  to  the  shape  of  the  leaves, 
which  are  often  much  cut. 

The  common  buttercup  has  a 
bulb,  which  is  enveloped  by  the 
dilated  base  of  the  root  leaves. 
These  are  palmately  compound, 
Avith  three  much-cut  divisions, 
or  a  long  leaf  stalk  .or  petiole. 
The  stem  leaves,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  sessile. 

All  of  the  parts  of  the  flower  are  present  and  free  from 
each  other.  The  sepals  frequently  drop  off  before  the 
rest  of  the  flower  has  faded  at  all. 

Notice  at  the  base  of  each  petal  the  small  nectar 
scale. 

The  outermost  stamens  ripen  and  discharge  their  pol- 
len first,  even  while  the  inner  stamens  are  still  covering 
over  and  protecting  the  young  pistils.  These  are  similar 
in  kind  and  arrangement  to  those  of  the  strawberry. 


Buttercup. 


246 


NATURE   STUDY 


Clo\t:r  (Trifolium  pratense)  : 

The  flowers  of  the  common  red  clover  are  so  thickly 
clustered  in  a  head,  that  for  a  moment  one  might  think 
that  it  belonged  to  the  Composites.     A  veiy  slight  ex- 
amination    of     the 
S^f-?.r,.  single  flowers  shows 

that    it    belongs   to 
the  Pea  family. 

As  in  the  other 
members  of  this 
family,  the  stip- 
ules, or  leaf-like 
bodies  at  the  base 
of  the  leaf  stalks, 
are  very  conspicu- 
ous. 

The  calyx  has 
long,  bristle-like 
teeth.  The  tube  of 
the  characteristical- 
ly butterfly-like  (pa- 
pilionaceous) corolla 
is  very  long,  so  that 
it  can  only  be 
fertilized  by  long- 
tongued  insects,  such  as  the  bumble  bee.  Our  honey 
bee,  however,  gets  round  the  difficulty  most  ingeniously 
by  biting  the  tube.  It  is  well  worth  his  while  to  take 
this  trouble,  for  the  nectar  is  very  abundant. 

"When  the  red  clover  Avas  first  imported  to  Australia, 
it  failed  to  set  seed,  because  of  the  absence  of  insects 
with  tongues  sufficiently  long  to  fertilize  it.  This  diffi- 
culty was  finally  obviated  by  importing  bumble  bees. 


Red  Clover,  buds  and  blossom. 


MAY  AND   JUNE 


247 


Doubtless  most  people  have  heard  of  Darwin's  illustra- 
tion of  the  remote  causes  determining  animal  or  plant 
existence,  as  illustrated  by  the  relationship  of  cats  to 
clover.  He  says  that  the  bumble  bees,  which  are  neces- 
sary to  the  fertilization  of  the  flower,  have,  for  an  invet- 
erate foe,  field  mice.  These,  in  turn,  are  preyed  upon  by 
the  cats.  Therefore  in  any  given  community  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  cats  determines  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  clover.  Or,  as  some  one  facetiously  puts  it,  for 
the  well-being  of  clover  there  must  be  plenty  of  old 
maids. 

White  clover  is  also  commonly  found.  It  does  not 
differ  materially  from 
the  red,  except  that  l^ 
the  tube  of  the  corolla 
is  short,  and  there- 
fore it  is  frequented 
by  a  larger  variety  of 
insects. 


Jack -IX -THE- PULPIT 
(Arisaema  triphyl- 
lum)  : 

In     spite     of     the 
fact  that  the  leaves 


^-PISTILLATE  FLOWERS 


PISTILLATE  FLOWERS 


-STAMINATE  FLOWERS 


Jack-in-the-pulpit. 


of  this  plant  are 
netted  veined,  it  be- 
longs to  the  one-seed- 
leaved  plants  (mono- 
cotyledons). It  is  a  near  relative  of  the  skunk  cab- 
bage, the  earliest  flower  to  bloom  in  the  spring,  and 
of  the  stately  calla.  Like  them,  its  real  flowers  are  situ- 
ated inside  the  sho-wj-  envelope,  and,  in  this  case,  at  the 


248 


NATURE   STUDY 


tis*^ 


base  of  the  rather  thick  spike  called  spadix.  The 
term  "  spathe "  is  applied  to  the  envelope.  Of  course, 
the  spadix  is  the  Jack  who  preaches  from  the  spathe 
pulpit. 

Some  of  the  Jacks  are  green,  striped  with  darker  lines 
of  the  same  color ;  others  are  striped  with  purple.  In 
England,  the  latter  are  called  the  lords,  and  the  lighter 
ones,  the  ladies.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  lords 
are  ladies,  botanically  speaking,  since  they  commonly 
contain  the  pistillate  flowers. 
Sometimes  Jacks  will  be 
found  on  whose  spadix  are 
both  staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers,  in  which  case  those 
containing  stamens  only  are 
above  those  with  the  pistils. 

The  part  of  the  Jack-in-the- 
pulpit  underground  is  thick 
and  fleshy,  very  acrid  in  taste, 
and  supposed  to  be  poisonous. 
Long  boiling  makes  it  eatable. 
Hence  it  is  often  called  Indian 
turnip. 

Shepherd's    Purse    (Capsella 
Bursa-pastoris) : 

This  belongs  to  the  Mustard 

Shepherd's  Purse.  family,    whosc     members    are 

recognized  almost  at  a  glance, 

since  their  corolla  forms  a  Greek  cross,  and,  of  their  six 

stamens  four  are  long  and  two  short. 

The  curious  seed  pods  furnish  the  reason  for  both  the 
botanical  and  the  common  name. 


MAY   AND   JUNE 


249 


Chickweed  (Stellaria  media)  : 

The  flowers  of  this  plant  are  much  too  small  for  chil- 
dren to  examine.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  let 
them  see,  that  instead  of  ten  petals, 
as  there  appear  to  be  at  first  sight,  there 
are  really  only  five. 

It  belongs  to  the  Pink  family,  and  is 
very  common  in  moist  ground,  both  in 
the  city  and  the  country. 

Sheep's  Sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella)  : 

This  plant  has  no  relationship  to  the 
pretty  yellow  sorrel,  although  it  bears 
the  same  name.  The  leaves  of  both  are 
pleasantly  acid. 

Along  with  the  Smartweeds,  also  very 
common,  it  belongs  to  the  Buckwheat 
family. 

Its  flowers  and  fruits  make  the 
meadows  red  in  siunmer. 

Ferns:  Sheep's  Sorrel. 

These  have  already  been  discussed  on  p.  36. 

Mosses  : 

One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  the  mosses, 
particularly  in  comparison  with  the  higher  plants,  is  the 
quickness  with  which  they  succumb  to  drouth,  and  with 
v/hich  they  recover  from  its  effects  when  they  are  fur- 
nished with  moisture.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
readily  absorb  water  in  any  and  every  part,  and  do  not 
depend  exclusively  on  their  so-called  roots,  which  are 
chiefly  useful  in  securing  a  hold  on  the  soil. 


250 


NATURE   STUDY 


Few  plants  can  resist  so  successfully  the  effects  of  heat 
and  cold,  drouth  and  moisture,  and  by  reason  of  this  they 
are  universally  distributed.  There  is  no  spot  so  barren 
and  desolate  that  some  kind  of  moss  or  lichen  may  not 
be  found  near  by. 

Like  the  ferns,  they  have  no  flower,  but  reproduce  by 
means  of  spores  instead  of  seeds.     These  spores  are  con- 


Moss  Plant,  lid  and  cap  removed,  showing  spores  within. 

tained  in  capsules  borne,  in  all  of  our  common  mosses, 
on  rather  long  stalks,  and  additionally  protected  by  a 
curious  sheath,  which  resembles  the  cap  of  a  Kormandy 
peasant  or,  sometimes,  a  candle  extinguisher. 

Peat,  burned  by  the  Irish  peasant,  is  almost  entirely 
composed  of  moss.  One  species  is  used  by  the  Lapland- 
ers to  line  their  cradles,  and  another  by  the  Esquimaux 
for   lampwicks ;    but   their  greatest  use  to  man  is  the 


MAY  AND   JUNE 


251 


indirect   one   of    furnishing   soil   and    protecting   other 
plants  against  the  effects  of  the  great  heat  or  cold. 

Lichens  : 

These  are  the  grayish  mosslike  plants  found  growing 
everywhere,  on  fences,  trees,  stones. 

The  so-called  reindeer  moss  is  a  lichen,  found  also 
very  commonly  here,  on  stones  or  on  the  ground,  gray 
and  much  branched. 


Three  common  types  of  Lichens. 

In  reality,  a  lichen  is  a  partnership  formed  between  a 
colorless  fungi  and  a  green  water  plant,  or  alg»,  by 
which  they  live  together  amicably,  each  helping  the  other. 

Fungi  : 

To  this  class  belong  plants  destitute  of  green  coloring 
matter,  living  on  dead  or  dying  organic  substance,  and,  in 
consequence,  unlike  all  other  plants,  perfectly  independent 
of  light. 


252 


NATURE   STUDY 


They  are  very  numerous,  both  as  species  and  as  individ- 
uals ;  perhaps  the  common  toadstool  or  mushroom  is  the 
most  likely  to  be  attractive  and  interesting  to  children. 

The  vegetative  organs  are  quantities  of  white  interlac- 
ing threads,  which  penetrate  and  ramify  the  decaying 

substance  on  Avhich  the 
mushroom  grows.  This 
is  the  spawn  from  which 
the  mushroom  is  propa- 
gated by  supplying  the 
necessary  moisture  and 
heat.  There  is  first  pro- 
duced a  round  fleshy 
tubercle,  from  which  is 
developed  a  stalk  sur- 
mounted by  a  round  cap, 
which  is  covered  with  a 
veil.  This  soon  breaks, 
leaving  always  a  reminder 
of  its  former  existence  and  position,  in  the  shape  of  the 
ring  around  the  stalk.  When  it  is  torn  away,  there  is 
disclosed  underneath  the  cap  many  vertical  leaves  or 
gills  which  bear  numberless  spores,  by  which  the  parent 
plant  is  again  reproduced. 

These  plants  grow  with  great  rapidity,  and  the  force 
generated  in  consequence  is  most  astonishing. 

It  is  related  that  a  fungus,  placed  within  a  glass  vessel, 
expanded  so  rapidly  that  the  dish  was  broken  into  pieces 
with  a  noise  as  loud  as  the  report  of  a  pistol. 

Another  famous  story  is  of  a  paving  stone,  twenty-one 
inches  square,  weighing  eight3'--three  pounds,  raised  an 
inch  and  a  half  from  its  bed  by  a  mass  of  toadstools,  six 
or  seven  inches  in  diameter. 


I         IV  V 

Story  of  the  Mushroom. 


MAY   AND   JUNE  253 


LITERATURE 
Stories  : 

Legend  of  the  Daisy,        1 

Ranunculus  (Buttercup),  [  Baumbach's  Summer  Legends. 

Four  Leaf  Clover,  J 

These  Three  (Moss),  Mrs.  Gatty's  Parables  from  Nature. 

Dandelion  Clocks,  Mrs.  Ewing. 

The  Dandelion,  Longfellow's  Hiawatha. 

„      „',  I  Andersen. 

Pea  Blossom,  J 

The  Sleeping  Apple,  "i  Emilia  Poulsson's  In  the 

How  West  Wind  Helped  Dandelion,  J      Child's  World. 


St.  Elizabeth  and  the  Roses, 
Baby  Calla, 


I  Wiltse's  Kindergarten  Stories. 


Easy  Poems: 

Buttercups  and  Daisies,  Mary  Howitt. 

Dandelion  Fashions,  Songs  for  Little  Children. 

Stars  and  Daisies,  Eleanor  Smith. 

Little  Dandelion,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 

Dandelion,  1 

Apple  Blossoms, 

Wake  up,  Little  Daisy,  |-  Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 

The  Lilac, 

Chorus  of  the  Flowers,  j 

Dandelion's  Complaint,  St.  Nicholas,  August  1897. 

Dandelion,  St.  Nicholas  Songs. 

More  Difficult  Poems  : 

Winged  Seeds  (Dandelion  and  Maples),  Lovejoy's  Nature  in 

Verse. 
Jack  in  the  Pulpit,  Whittier's  Child  Life. 
Daisy,  Montgomery. 
Seven  Times  Four,  Jean  Ingelow. 
Song  of  Clover,  Saxe  Holme. 
Dandelion,  Lowell. 
Dandelion,  Tabb. 


254  NATURE    STUDY 


STONES 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  say  what  stones  will  be  brought 
in  by  the  children.  But  the  teacher  will  certainly  need 
to  know  something  about  limestones,  sandstones,  and 
slates. 

The  safest  plan  with  stones,  is  to  take  the  specimen 
to  a  specialist,  and  then,  with  the  name  as  a  clew  and  the 
specimen  in  your  hand,  learn  all  that  you  can  about  it 
both  from  books  and  people. 

Limestones  : 

The  best-known  limestone  is  marble,  which  is  found  in 
nearly  every  color,  —  white,  yellow,  red,  blue,  black,  —  but 
is  most  familiar  to  us  as  the  white  marble  so  extensively 
used  for  entire  buildings,  doorsteps,  mantels,  table  tops, 
and  tombstones. 

A  piece  of  marble  tested  Avith  the  knife  and  with 
dilute  acid,  strong  vinegar,  or  weak  hydrochloric  acid 
will  be  proved  to  be  a  soft  rock  made  up  of  carbonate  of 
lime.  The  acid  combines  with  the  lime,  setting  free  the 
carbon  dioxide,  which  causes  the  effervescence. 

The  carbon  dioxide,  thus  produced  from  marble  and 
acid,  is  identical  both  in  nature  and  method  of  manufact- 
ure with  the  carbon  dioxide  which  gives  the  agreeable 
pungency  to  soda  water. 

It  is  identical,  also,  with  the  carbon  dioxide  exhaled 
by  plants  and  animals,  which,  while  it  is  not  an  active 
poison,  produces  death  by  suffocation,  since  its  presence 
means  the  absence  of  oxygen. 

In  this  connection  read  the  story  of  the  Black  Hole  of 
Calcutta  so  graphically  told  by  Macaulay. 


MAY  AND   JUNE  255 

Marble  is  distinctly  crystalline  in  strncture,  a  change 
brought  about  in  its  metamorphosis  from  ordinary  lime- 
stone by  the  combined  action  of  pressure  and  heat. 

Its  softness  and  effervescence  with  dilute  acid  is  the 
test  for  all  of  the  limestones. 

The  other  well-known  forms  are  the  ordinary  gray 
limestone  and  chalk,  not  the  chalk  of  the  schoolroom, 
which  is  a  paste  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  sulphate 
of  lime,  but  the  chalk  of  the  White  Cliffs  of  Dover. 

Limestones  are  all  originally  aqueous  and  organic  in 
origin.  This  is  clearly  visible  to  the  naked  eye  in  what 
are  know  as  shelly,  coral,  and  crinoidal  limestones.  The 
Coquina  stone,  now  forming  along  the  Florida  coast,  con- 
sisting of  coarse  shell  fragments  held  together  with 
natural  cement  of  lime,  tells  plainly  the  story  of  its 
formation. 

Sandstones  : 

Sandstone  may  be  of  almost  any  color,  but  it  is  most 
familiar  to  us  in  the  city  as  "  brown  stone  "  and  "  gray 
stone."  It  is  granular,  hard,  gritty,  and  does  not  effer- 
vesce with  acids,  except  the  kinds  that  happen  to  have  a 
carbonate  of  lime  cement  holding  the  grains  together. 
These  last  are  soft  sandstones. 

Brown  and  red  sandstones  have  a  cement  of  iron, 
while  most  of  the  light  sandstones  are  cemented  with 
silica,  which  makes,  of  course,  a  very  hard  rock. 

All  of  the  sandstones  are  of  aqueous  origin.  The 
stratification  is  not  always  visible,  but  the  shape  and 
kind  of  grains  are  sufficient  indications.  Moreover,  they 
often  contain  fossils. 

The  conglomerates,  of  which  the  pudding  stone  is  an 
example,  belong  to  the  same  family  of  rocks.     They  are 


256  NATURE    STUDY 

made  up  of   pebbles   instead  of  the  smaller  grains   of 
sand. 

Slates  a^std  Shales  : 

These  are  simply  compressed  clay,  and  can  be  easily 
recognized  by  the  characteristic  odor  obtained  by  moist- 
ening them  slightly. 

They  are  of  aqueous  origin,  and  in  consequence  often 
contain  fossils.  Sometimes  ripple  marks  and  the  im- 
press of  raindrops  are  to  be  seen. 

Their  principal  commercial  use  is  for  blackboards, 
slates,  roofing,  flagging,  tiles. 

Method : 

None  of  these  families  of  stones  should  be  taught, 
unless  the  children  themselves  furnish  the  pretext  by 
bringing  in  the  specimens. 

Aside  from  the  observation  and  tests  to  which,  by  this 
time,  they  should  have  learned  to  subject  all  minerals, 
endeavor  to  make  tlie  children  reason  out  the  origin. 

A  bottle  of  acid  and  a  glass  dropping  rod  should  be 
always  ready  for  use. 


APPENDIX 


The  following  papers,  in  all  cases  the  first  and  uncor- 
rected efforts  of  the  pupils,  may  be  suggestive  to  some 
teachers. 

For    the   benefit   of   the  ^_^-'-" 

reader  the  spelling  has  been  ®°*'^  p"  f     )      ^^^^ 

altered,  Avhen  necessary,  to 
the  conventional  form. 


Second  Year 

These  drawings  were 
made  from  material  grown 
by  the  teacher,  after  the 
child  had  grown  and  stud- 
ied her  own  pea.  She 
arranged  the  peas  and 
labelled  the  parts  without 
assistance. 

Ida  Escher, 

Second  Year  A. 

Mica 


ROOTED   PtA 


-COAT 
--ROOT    OUT 


SPROUTED  PEA 


ROOT 


Viola  Toboldt.     Second  Year  A. 


Mica  grows  under  the  ground,  and  it  is  transparent 
when  there  is  only  one  layer.      Mica  grows  in  layers, 
s  257 


258  NATURE    STUDY 

and  is  very  slippery  and  shiny.  Little  pieces  of  mica 
are  very  silvery.  Mica,  I  know,  is  soft,  for  I  can  scratch 
it  with  my  finger-nail.  We  all  can  see  through  mica 
when  it  is  thin  enough. 

Third  Year 

After  numerous  excursions  to  study  the  trees  in  the 
neighborhood,  the  children  drew  a  plan  of  the  plot  of 
ground  opposite  the  school,  representing  the  trees  by 
small  circles.  These  plans  they  took  out  with  them,  and 
entirely  independently  of  each  other  and  of  me,  marked 
the  initial  of  the  tree  below  the  circle  which  represented 
it. 

Subsequently  they  were  given  the  various  leaves,  of 
which  they  made  drawings,  as  a  key  to  the  plan.  No 
child  in  any  class  made  a  single  mistake  in  identifying 
the  leaves. 

Margaret  Graham,   Tliird   Year. 

Language — Catalpa 

The  catalpa  grows  sometimes  a  very  large  tree.  It  has 
smooth  bark,  and  it  is  pretty  thick  around  the  bottom. 
As  it  goes  up  it  gets  thinner.  The  branches  of  the  catalpa 
are  very  large  and  spread  out,  but  there  are  not  very 
many.  The  shape  of  the  leaf  is  heart  shape.  The  veins 
are  alternate.  The  edge  of  the  catalpa  is  very  smooth. 
The  leaf  is  very  large. 

Fourth  Year 

The  drawings  below  Avere  made  from  material  grown 
by  the  teacher,  after  the  children  had  grown  and  studied 
all  stages  of  the  wheat,  pea,  and  squash. 


APPENDIX 


259 


°2           5o| 

(oo    \ 

o 

2 

UJ 
0 

S 

o 

X 

o 
o 

2 

o 

o 

5 

0 

0 

0 

UJ 

o 

0 

o 
o 

o 

o 

I 

o 

UJ 

III 

o 

c 

UJ 

L  o"j 

Francis  Bowers.    Third  Year. 


260 


NATURE    STUDY 


The  drawings  followed  immediately  after  a  lesson  com- 
paring the  three  seedlings,  in  which  special  emphasis  was 
laid  on  the  differences  between  the  seed  leaves. 


_SEEO  LEAVES 


Squash    //Xl SEED  LEAVES 

VEINS 


Paul  Lunkenheimer.    Fourth  Year  B, 


appp:ndix  201 

Samuel  Ferxbekger,  Fourth  Year. 
Our  Seeds 

The  wheat,  the  squash,  the  pea,  the  bean,  and  the  corn 
are  the  seeds  we  planted.  We  did  not  plant  our  seeds  in 
earth  as  most  people  do,  but  took  a  tumbler,  tied  netting 
over  it  loosely,  put  the  seeds  on  the  netting,  and  poured 
water  into  the  glass  until  it  touched  the  seeds.  The 
reason  we  planted  them  this  way  was  because  we  could 
see  the  roots. 

We  placed  some  in  the  dark,  some  without  water,  one 
or  two  without  warmth,  while  the  majority  were  placed 
in  the  light.  The  ones  that  were  put  in  the  dark  grew 
faster  than  the  others,  but  were  a  lightish  color,  and  were 
not  green.  The  ones  in  cold  froze,  the  ones  without  water 
dried  up,  the  ones  in  the  light  grew  green. 

The  peas  are  round,  yellow,  and  hard.  At  first  we  saw 
one  root  breaking  through  the  skin.  This  root  is  white. 
In  the  second  stage  the  root  has  grown  larger  and  a  branch 
is  coming  up.  The  branch  is  crooked  at  the  top,  and  on 
the  top  are  the  little  green  leaves.  The  reason  that  it  is 
crooked  at  the  top  is  because  it  is  under  the  earth,  and 
the  tender  leaves  would  break  in  their  attempt  in  getting 
above  the  ground. 

Xext  the  pea  is  full  grown,  the  root  is  longer  and  be- 
ginning to  branch,  the  crook  is  straightening,  branches 
are  coming  out  on  the  main  branch,  and  the  leaves  are 
unfolding.     It  is  by  this  time  above  the  earth. 

The  reason  the  root  is  branching  is  because  it  wants 
more  food,  and  is  so  tall  and  wants  a  stronger  foundation. 
Branching  veins  are  on  the  leaves. 

The  wheat  is  another  seed  not  near  as  large  as  the  pea. 

In  the  first  stage  the  roots  are  coming  out,  not  one,  but 


262  NATURE    STUDY 

three  or  four.  In  the  next  stage  the  roots  have  grown 
larger,  and  one  more  is  added  to  the  rest.  The  branch 
is  showing  itself.  It  is  not  crooked  on  top,  but  grows 
straight  up.  Next  we  find  the  blade  coming  out  of  a 
covering  called  the  sheath.  This  sheath  is  there  to 
protect  the  wheat  until  above  the  ground.  The  sheath 
is  white,  and  the  blade  is  green.  Parallel  veining  is  in 
the  wheat. 

Lastly,  everything  is  grown  larger.    The  roots  increase 
in  number  and  are  longer. 


ADDITIONAL   LITERATURE 

Poems  for  the  Moxths. 

There  is  a  stanza  or  more  descriptive  of  each  mouth  in 
the  following  books  and  poems  : 

Little  Folks'  Lyrics,  F.  D.  Slieriuau. 

Poems,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

Poets'  Calendar,  Longfellow. 

The  Months,  Mary  Howitt. 

September,  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  Poems. 

October,  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  Poems. 

October,  Lucy  Larcom. 

October,  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Easter  Bells. 

November,  Lucy  Larcom. 

November,  Susan  Coolidge. 

November,  R.  H.  Stoddard. 

December,  Mary  E.  Blake,  Poems. 

April  !  April  Are  You  Here,  Dora  Goodale. 

April  Snow  Storm,  George  H.  Boker. 

April,  Susan  Coolidge. 

April  the  Handmaiden,  Nora  Perry,  in  New  Songs  and  BaUads, 

May,  T,  B.  Aldrich. 

May,  Susan  Coolidge. 


APPENDIX  263 

Song  of  May,  Nora  Perry,  in  New  Songs  and  Ballads. 
In  Maytime,  Mary  E.  Blake,  in  Verses  Along  the  Way. 
June,  Mary  E.  Blake. 
June  Comes  in  To-morrow,  Elaine  Goodale. 

Poems  for  the  Seasons. 

Autumn  Song,  Will  Carleton. 

Autumn  Bouquet,  Nora  Perry,  in  After  the  Ball. 

At  Harvest  Time,  in  Lilliput  Levee. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  Nora  Perry,  in  New  Songs  and  Ballads. 

Thanksgiving,  1 

A  Thanksgiving  Feast,     [■  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Easter  Bells. 

Miss  Lucinda's  Opinion,  j 

Song  for  Winter,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

The  White  Days  of  Winter,  /Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Little 

I     Lords  and  Ladies. 
Winter,  in  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 
Kriss  Kringle,  F.  D.  Sherman,  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 
Christmas  Greeting,  Lucy  Larcom. 
Old  Year  to  the  New,  Nora  Perry,  in  New  Songs  and  Ballads. 

.  ^,       ,^         f  Margaret  E.   Sangster,  in  Little  Lords  and 
A  New  Year, -^      ^°.. 

(.     Ladies. 

Spring  Song,  \  ^^^^^^  Goodale,  in  Poems  of  Two  Children. 

Spring,  J 

Spring's  Coming,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Kace  of  the  Flowers,  in  Lilliput  Levee. 

The  Flowers,  Mrs.  Dodge,  in  Verses  Along  the  Way. 

Spring,  R.  H.  Stoddard. 

Secrets  of  Spring,  Nora  Perry,  New  Songs  and  Ballads. 


Add  to  page  15  : 

Flying  Kite,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Merry  Wind,  )^  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Little  Lords  and 

The  Four  Winds,  J      Ladies. 

The  Weather  Vane,  Edith  Thoinas,  in  New  Year's  Masque. 

The  Wind  to  His  Enemy,  in  Lilliput  Levee. 


264  .  NATUKE    STUDY 

Add  to  page  18 : 

Clouds,  1 

The  Rainbow,  J^  F.  U.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Fairy  Story,      J 

Weather  Vane,  Susan  Coolidge. 

Add  to  page  37 : 

Golden  Rod,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Add  to  page  38 : 

Li  Fern  Land,  E.  C.  Stedman. 

Fringed  Gentian,  Susan  Coolidge. 

Fringed  Gentian,  Edith  Thomas,  in  Fair  Shadow  Laud. 

Water  Lily,  Lucy  Larcom. 

Mondamin  (Corn),  Bayard  Taylor. 

Secret  of  the  Suntlower,  from  Lilliput  Levee. 

Add  to  page  61 : 

"^  ^  '''  I  Mrs.  Dodge,  in  Verses  Along  the  Way. 

The  Grass  World,  i  °  r,  j 

Hives  and  Homes,  Phoebe  Cary. 

T3       .    ,,     ^,     .        r  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Little  Lords  and 
Bees  in  the  Meadow,  <.         ^  »       ' 

L      Ladies. 

A  Charge  to  the  Bees,  Susan  Coolidge. 

Jester  Bee,  1 

Bees,  [  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

In  the  Meadow,  J 

Baby  Bye,  Theodore  Tilton. 

Bee,  Sidney  Lanier. 

Charge  to  the  Bees,  Edith  Thomas,  in  New  Year's  Masque. 

Add  to  page  69  : 

Rainbow,  Wordsworth. 

Rainbow,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

The  Rainbow,  John  Keble. 


APPENDIX  265 

Add  to  page  99 : 

The  Merry  Wind,       1  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Little  Lords  and 

The  Ripened  Leaves,  i      Ladies. 

Leaves  at  Play,  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Add  to  page  101 : 

^,  ., ,       ,  ,,     T>-   1    f  Marcaret  E.  .Sangster,  in  Little  Lords  and 
Chad  and  the  Bird,  \         ^  o       ' 

t-     Ladies. 

Robin  Redbreast,  Allinghaui. 

Add  to  page  109 : 

Little  People  of  the  Snow,  Bryant. 

A  Story  for  Wee  Willie  Winkle  |  Wiltse's  Stories  for  Kinder- 

(North  Wind  and  Frost),  J      gartens. 

The  Snowflake,  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Little  Lords  and  Ladies. 
Snow  Flake,      1 

Snow  Song,        |-  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 
Snow  Weaver,  J 

Add  to  page  116  : 

Christmas,  )  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Easter  Bells. 

Holly  and  Pine,  > 

Of  All  Dear  Days,  Nora  Perry,  in  After  the  Ball. 

Add  to  page  128 : 

Fish  or  Frogs,  Wiltse's  Stories  for  Kindergartens. 
The  Housekeeper  (The  Snail),  Charles  Lamb. 

Add  to  page  158  : 

Leak  in  the  Dyke,  Phoebe  Cary. 

Dew  Bells,  Edith  Thomas,  in  0  Fair  Shadow  Land. 

Wizard  Frost, 

The  Juggler, 

A  Fairy  Story,  j-  F.  D.  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Fairy  Jewels, 

A  Dewdrop, 

The  River,  Caroline  B.  Southey. 


266  NATURE    STUDY 

Add  to  page  175 : 

March  Crocuses,  Phoebe  Gary. 

Snowdrop,  Edith  Thomas,  in  Lyrics  and  Sonnets. 

Add  to  page  184: 

Hernard  Palissy,     \  ^yi|tgg,j,  stories  for  Kindergartens 
Grandma  Kaoline,  > 

Add  to  page  193  : 

Garl  and  the  Earthworm,  Wiltse's  Stories  for  Kindergartens. 

Robin's  Apology,  )  ^  ^  Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 
In  the  Orchard,     J 

Add  to  page  229 : 

The  Birch  Tree,  Susan  Goolidge. 

The  Birch  Tree,  Edith  Tliomas,  in  New  Year's  Masque. 

Dovecote  Mill  (Sugar  Making),  Phoebe  Gary. 

Add  to  page  235 : 

Legend  of  the  Gowslip,  Wiltse's  Stories  for  Kindergartens. 

Snowdrop,  |  ^^^^^^^  Goolidge,  in  Songs  and  Lyrics. 
Anemone,  i 

Snowdrops  and  Grocus,  |  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  in  Easter  Bells. 
Violets,  ) 

The  Violet,  Herrick. 

Add  to  page  253 : 

What  are  Dandelions  ?    Wiltse's  Stories  for  Kindergartens. 
Blossom  Snow  (Apple),  Mr.s.  Dodge,  in  Verses  Along  the  Way. 
Apple  Blossoms,  /  Edith  Thomas,   in  New 

Charge  to  the  Bees  (Apple  Blossoms),  I      Year's  Masque. 
Apple  Blossoms,  Nora  Perry,  in  After  the  Ball. 

Daisies,    |  y   ^   Sherman,  in  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Cherries,  ) 

Daisies,  Mary  E.  Blake,  Verses  Along  the  AVay. 


INDEX 


Academies  (Greek  groves),  218. 

Acorns,  212. 

Agate,  180. 

Ailantluis,  77,  79,  222. 

Amethyst,  180. 

Anemone,  230. 

Animals,  ;iS-(;0,  80-83,  99-101,  IKi- 
128,  144-152,  164-167,  184-192: 
books  on,  2 ;  literature  for,  60, 
61,  83,  84,  101,  128,  152,  167,  193. 
194. 

Apollo,  11,  63. 

Apple,  76,  241-243. 

April,  literature  for,  195. 

Aquarium,  116-119. 

Arbor  Vita?,  113. 

Arbutus,  229,  231. 

Arthur's  Round  Table,  214. 

Ash,  77,  79,  224. 

Aspen,  206,  209. 

Aster,  29. 

Auriga,  104. 

Autumn,  literature  for,  62. 

Azalea,  231. 

Balsam  fir,  113. 

Barley,  17(j. 

Bartram's  Gardens,  222. 

Basswood,  199-201. 

Beaks  of  birds,  145,  147. 

Beans,  136,  137. 

Bee,   honey,  55-58,   236 :    humble, 

55,  247. 
Beech  trees,  215,  216. 
Beech,  copper,  216. 


Beetle,    potato,    48;    ground,    39, 

48. 
Beetles,  48-50,  236. 
Beggars'  lice,  77. 
Berlin,  200. 
Birch  bark,  204,  205. 
Birch,  black,  205,  206;  canoe,  203- 

205 :  cherry,  205,  206 ;  cut-leaved, 

203 ;  white,  203,  204. 
Birches,  20.3-205. 
Birds,    144-152,    164-167,    186-192; 

literature  for,  83,  84,  152,  167. 
Birnam  Woods,  216. 
Blackberry,  245. 
Blackbird",  189,  190. 
Bloodroot,  230,  234. 
Blueberry,  231. 
Bluebird,  187. 
Bluet,  233. 
Boiling,  131-133. 
Bones,  149,  150. 
Breathing  of  plants,  159-161. 
Browning,  201. 
Brownstone,  255. 
Buckeye,  225. 
Buckwheat  family,  249. 
Buds,  94,  95,  169-175,  199. 
Bulbs,  96-98. 
Burdock,  76. 
"  Burning  stones,"  223. 
Bushey  Park,  225. 
Butter  and  eggs,  32,  33. 
Buttercups,  245. 
Buttertiies,  50-53,  236. 
Buttouwood,  216-218. 


267 


268 


NATURE    STUDY 


Cabbage  butterfly,  51. 

Cages  for  animals,  100,  101. 

Calla,  247. 

Calyx,  18,  19,  34. 

Canoe,  birch  bark,  205. 

Capella,  104. 

Carbon  dioxide,  159-l(il.  254. 

Carnelian,  ISO. 

Carrot,  wild,  18,  32. 

Cassiopeia,  103. 

"  Castings,"  185,  18C,  1!)1,  192. 

Catalpa,  258. 

Caterpillars,  38,  60,  (il,  237. 

Cecropia  cocoon,  236. 

Cercus  of  an  insect,  40,  41. 

Chalcedony,  180. 

Chalk,  255. 

Charter  Oak,  212. 

Cherry,  172. 

Chestnut  trees,  71-74 ;  grub,  73,  74. 

Chicadee,  1(!4. 

Chick  weed,  249. 

Chicory,  18,  27,  28,  38. 

Christmas,  literature  for,  102,  103. 

Cicada,  47,  48. 

Clay,  178,  183. 

Clayton,  John,  2.30. 

Clouds,  11,  13,  14,  16,  1.52,  153, 1.56; 
literature  for,  15, 18. 

Clover,  red,  24(J,  247;  white,  247; 
sweet,  30. 

Clytie,  63. 

Cocoons,  236. 

Codliu  moth,  76. 

Color  study,  9 ;  protective,  22,  23. 

Composites,  25,  27-32,  239,  240. 

Condensation,  131-133. 

Conglomerate,  255. 

Coquina,  255. 

Corn,  germination  of,  135,  1.36. 

Corolla,  IS,  19,  34. 

Cottonwood  (North  Carolina  Pop- 
lar), 200-208. 

Cotyledon,  13(i. 

Crickets,  39,  45,  60,  61. 

Crow,  144-146. 

Crowfoot  family,  245. 


Crystallization,  157. 
Crystal  rock,  180. 

Daisy,  240. 

Dandelion,  2.38-241. 

December,  literature  ou,  102, 

Dew,  1.55,  157,  158. 

Diana,  88. 

Dicotyledon,  1.36- 

Dipper,  Great,  103, 104 ;  Little,  104. 

Disk  flowers,  27,  31. 

Dogtooth  violet,  230,  234. 

Dragon,  103. 

Dragonfly,  45^7,  60,  61. 

Drawing,  9,  24. 

Duck,  bill  of,  149;  eider,  151. 

Ear  of  locust,  41. 
Earth  sciences,  book  on,  2. 
Earthworm,  18-^-186,  191,  192. 
Egg  filacer  of  insect,  41,  44,  45. 
Eider  duck,  51. 
Elm,  201-203. 
Endymion,  89. 
Euripides,  201. 
Evaporation,  131-1.33. 
Excursions,  7,  13,  15,  22,  25. 
Eyes  of  insects,  40. 
"  Eyestones,"  126. 

Feathers,  150-152. 
February,  literature  for,  153. 
Feet  (birds') ,  146-149. 
Feldspar,  180,  183,  197,  198. 
Fern,  19,  36,  37,  38. 
Fertilization  in  plants,  21,  22,  23, 

31,  32,  34,  35. 
Filament,  19. 
Fir,  balsam,  113. 
Firefly,  50. 
Fish  food,  118,  119. 
Fish,  gold,  117,  122, 
Fivefinger,  245. 
Flies,  58,  59. 
Flint,  180. 
Flowers,  autumn,  18-35;  literature 

for,  37, 235,  253;  spring,  229-235. 


INDEX 


2G9 


Food   of    plants,  15!),  IGl,  l<i2;    in 

seeds,  1(J2-1(J3,  ITt!. 
Freiburg,  '200. 
Frog,  101,  122-124. 
Frost,  155,  157,  158. 

Galls  (oak),  215. 

Garter  snakes,  101. 

Germination,    loo-143,    257,    2(i0- 

262. 
Giant's  nosegay,  255. 
Gneiss,  197,  1!)8. 

Golden-crowned  kinglet,  !&],  167. 
Goldenrod,  18,  28,  37",  38. 
Granite,  1<)6-198. 
Grasshopper,  39,  40-45,  60,  01. 
Ground  beetle,  ;!9,  4.S. 
Guinea  pig,  100. 

Hail,  155. 

Hampton  Court,  225. 

Harvest  tly,  47,  48. 

Hawthorn,  245. 

Heath  family,  231. 

Hemlock,  113. 

Hepatica,  230,  233. 

Hercules,  208. 

Heron,  148. 

Hibernation,  100,  101. 

Hickory,  221. 

Holly,  114,  115. 

Homer,  209. 

Horse  chestnut,  169-172,  225-229. 

Huckleberry,  231. 

Hyacinth  bulb,  96-98. 

Hyacinth  tree,  225. 

Hyacinthus,  63. 

Indian  turnip,  248. 

Ink,  215. 

Insects,  38-60,  236;  literature  for, 

60,  61. 
Involucre,  29,  31. 
Iris,  (53. 

Ironweed,  18,  27. 
Isabella  moth,  50. 


Jack-in-thc-pulpit.  247,  248. 
Jamestown  weed,  18,  19-24. 
January,  literature  for,  129. 
Jasper,  180. 
Jimson  weed,  19-24. 
J  unco,  164,  165. 
June,  literature  for,  238. 
Jupiter,  103,  215. 

Katydid,  44,  45,  60,  61. 

Kinglet,  golden-crowned,  166,  167 

Language,  8,  9,  24. 

Larva,  42,  46,  47,  59. 

Laurel,  mountain,  231. 

Leaf  (thistle),  23,  24. 

Leaves :  Leafcards,  227 ;  pressing 
leaves,  227;  leaf  study,  227-22!) ; 
work  of  leaves,  !t4-96. 

Lichen,  251. 

Lilac  (buds),  172,  173. 

Lily  pond,  18,  33,  34,  38. 

Lime  tree,  1!)9-201. 

Limestone,  2.54,  255. 

Limnea,  118,  124-127. 

Linden,  1!)9-201. 

Literature :  animals, 2, 38-()0, 80-83, 
9!)-101,  116-128,  144-152,  164-1()7, 
184-192;  April,  194:  autumn,  ()2; 
birds,  83,  84, 152,  167 ;  Christmas, 
102,  103 ;  December,  102 :  Febru- 
ary, 153;  liowers,  37,  235,.  253; 
insects,  60,  61;  January,  129; 
June,  238 ;  March,  168 ;  May,  238 ; 
moon,  88;  New  Year,  12!):  No- 
vember^ 85  ;  October,  (52  :  plants, 
2,  37,  38,  79,  98,  99,  116,  14:!, 
175,  229,  235,  253;  preparation 
for  winter,  98,  101 ;  rain,  14,  15, 
17,  18;  September,  10;  snow, 
109;  spring,  li»4,  195;  .stars,  106: 
stones,  184;  sun,  63,  69;  thanks- 
giving, 85 ;  trees,  229. 

Locust  (insect),  39,  40-45.  See 
Cicada. 

Locust  (tree),  223,  224;  commou, 
223 ;  lioney,  223. 


270 


NATURE   STUDY 


Lords  and  Ladies,  248. 
Lyra,  104. 

Macbeth,  21«. 

Maples,  218-221 ;  Norway,  210-220 : 
red,  21!i;  rock,  220,  221;  silver, 
218,  219 ;  striped,  218,  219  ;  sugar, 
220,  221 ;  .sycamore,  22.i. 

Marble,  254,  255. 

March,  literature  for,  168. 

Mars,  103. 

Material,  how  to  obtain,  6. 

May,  literature  on,  238. 

Mercury,  11,  12. 

Mica,  178,  197,  198. 

Mica  schist,  198,  199. 

Migration  of  birds,  1!)0. 

Milk-weed  butterfly,  52,  53. 

Milky  Way,  105. 

Minerals,  178-183, 19(;-199,  254-256. 

Mistletoe,  115. 

Monarch  butterfly,  52,  53. 

Monocotyledons,  136. 

Moon,  86,  88 :  literature  for,  88. 

Moonstone,  181. 

Morning  glory,  18,  32,  33,  37. 

Mosquito,  59,  60. 

Moss,  249,  250. 

Mother-of-pearl,  127. 

Moths,  38,  39,  50,  53-.55,  60,  61,  236. 

Mountain  laurel,  231. 

Mourning  cloak,  52. 

Movement  of  plants,  .30,  33;  (seed- 
lings) 1.35,  1.36. 

Mustard  family,  248. 

Mussels,  118,  127,  128. 

Nasturtium  (garden),  18,  34,  35. 
Nectar,  18,  32,  .34. 
Net,  butterfly,  42,  43. 
New  Haven,  202. 
New  Year,  129. 
North  star,  103,  104. 
November,  literature  for,  8"). 
Number  in  connection  with  nature 

study,  8. 
Nymph  of  insect,  42,  46. 


Oak,  211-215;  black.  213:  chestnut, 
213;  pin,  213;  red,  214:  Royal, 
212 ;  white,  213. 

Oak  galls,  215. 

October,  literature  for,  63. 

Oil  in  seeds,  162,  162. 

Oil,  test  for,  162. 

Onyx,  180. 

Opal.  180. 

Orthoclase,  180. 

Ostrich,  149. 

Ovary,  19,  31. 

Ovules,  13,  19. 

Owl,  146,  147. 

Paludina,  118,  126,  127. 

Pappus,  240. 

Pea,  germination  of,  134. 

Pea  family,  143,  223. 

Peach,  245. 

Peanut,  germination  of,  139;  fooa 
in,  1()2. 

Pear,  245. 

Peat,  250. 

Pebbles,  179. 

Penn,  William,  202. 

Petals,  18,  19. 

Phaethon,  63. 

Physa,  118,  126. 

Physics,  131-133. 

Pigeon,  99. 

Pines,  110-112 ;  pitch.  111 ;  red,  111, 
112 ;  white,  110. 

Pink  family,  249. 

Pistil,  18,  19,  35. 

Plants,  18-38,  71-79,  91-98, 109-115, 
133-143, 158-1()3, 199-235, 2.38-252, 
257-262:  literature  for,  3,  37,  38, 
79,  98,  116,  143,  175,  229,  235,  253. 

Plum,  245. 

Pole  star,  103,  104. 

Pollen,  19,  35. 

Pond  lily,  18,  33,  34. 

Poplars,  206,  209 ;  balsam,  206,  208 ; 
Lombardy,  206,  208  ;  North  Caro- 
lina, 206,  208 ;  necklace,  206,  208 ,; 
white,  206,  208. 


INDEX 


271 


Poplar  buds,  173,  174. 

Popple,  206,  209. 

Portulacca,  230. 

Potato  beetle,  49. 

Preparation  for  winter,  animal,  99- 

101 ;  plant,  94-98 ;  literature  for, 

9S,  101. 
Protective  color,  22,  23,  34. 
Pudding  stone,  255. 
Pupa,  47,  48,  59,  60. 
Pusley,  230. 

Quaker  lady,  230,  233. 
Quartz,  179,  180,  182,  197,  198. 
Quince,  248. 

Rabbit,  cage  for,  100. 

Rain,  14,  17,  154,  156;  gauge,  130: 

literature  for,  14,  15,  17,  18. 
Raspberry,  245. 
Ray  flower,  27,  31. 
Reading,  8,  24. 
Receptacle,  31. 
Records,  weather,  16,  70,  71,  90, 92, 

107,  lOS,  12t)-131. 
Relative  work,  8. 
Rhododendron,  231. 
Rind  tents,  205. 
Robin,  187. 
Rock  crystal,  180. 
Root,  23,  24;  as  storehouse,  97,  98. 
Root  cap, 98. 
Rose  family,  245. 
Round  Table,  214. 
Royal  Oak  Day,  212. 

Sand,  178. 

Sandstone,  255,  256. 

Saturn,  103. 

Scale  of  hardness,  180. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  209. 

Seeds,  19,  175,  261,  262  ;  food  supply 

in,  162, 163 ;  germination  of,  133- 

143,  176. 
Sepals,  18,  19,  34. 
September,  literature  for,  10. 
Setting  board,  43. 


Shadbush,  245. 

Shales,  256. 

Shepherd's  purse,  248. 

Sheep's  sorrel,  249. 

Skeleton,  bird,  149. 

Skunk  cabbage,  247. 

Slate,  256. 

Sleep  movements,  cotyledons,  138; 

leaves,  30. 
Slugs,  127. 
Smartweed,  249. 
Suails,  118,  124,  127. 
Snake,  cages  for,  101. 
Snow,  130,  154,  157,  l(i5 ;  literature 

for,  109 ;  measure  for,  130. 
Snowbird,  165. 
Snowflakes,  108. 
Soil,  172-183. 
Sorrel,  sheep's,  249. 
Spadix,  248.  • 

Sparrow,  English,  80-83. 
Spathe,  248. 
Spring  beauty,  229,  230. 
Spring,  literature  for,  194,  195. 
Spruce,  114. 

Squash,  germination  of,  138. 
Squirrel,  cage  for,  100,  101. 
Stamens,  18,  19,  33,  34. 
Starch  in  seeds  and  fruits,  162, 163 ; 
test  for,  161;   change  to  sugar, 
176. 
Stars,  103-105 ;  literature  for,  106. 

Stem,  23,  24. 

Stick-me-tight,  77. 

Stigma,  19,  31. 

Stones,  178-183,  19(5-199,  254-256: 
literature  for,  184. 

Stork,  149. 

Stramonium,  19-24. 

Strawberry.  244,  245. 

Style,  19,  31. 

Sugar,  maple,  221. 

Sun,  6:5-69;  literature  for,  63,  69. 

Sunflower,  18,  29,  31,  37,  38. 

Sunshine  chart,  68,  69. 

Susan,  black-eyed,  18,  31,  32. 

Sycamore,  216-218. 


272 


NATriiE    STUDY 


Tadpole,  118, 122-124. 

Temperature,  92-94. 

Teut,  rind  (birch  l)ark),  20.j. 

Thanksgiving,  literature  for,  So. 

Thistle,  18,  24-2(),  37,  38. 

Toad,  egg.s  of,  124. 

Toad-tlax,  32,  33. 

Treaty  elm,  202. 

Tree  of  Heaven,  222. 

Tree  of  a  Hundred  Horsemen,  73. 

Trees,   autumn,  !i4-9();    literature 

for,    229;    spring,    199-229,   258, 

259;  study  of,  227-229. 
Tropseolum,  18. 
Turtles,  101. 
Tussock  moth,  53,  54. 
Twining,  33,  37. 

Unter  den  Linden,  200. 

Yane,  weather,  lU. 
Yega, 104. 
Venus,  103. 

Violet,  blue,  229,  231,   232;    dog- 
tooth, 230,  234. 
Vivaria,  38,  39,  43,  101. 

Walnut,  224. 
Wasbingtou,  202,  215,  217. 


Wasp,  digger,  42. 

Water  lily,  18,  33. 

Weather,  10-lS,  (;3-<>9,  70,  71,  85, 
89-94,  107-109,  129-133,  15.3-15S, 
168,  1(J9;  literature  for,  17,  is, 
63,  (;9,  109,  158:  records,  70,  71. 
90,  92,  107,  108,  129,  131 ;  vane, 
16. 

Whittier,  217. 

Wild  carrot,  18. 

Willow  buds,  174,  175. 

Willow  trees,  black,  209;  crack. 
210;  goat,  209, 211 ;  heartleaved, 
210;  long-beaked,  210;  Kilmar- 
nock, 211;  weeping,  209;  white, 
210. 

Wind,  10-13,  15,  16;  literature  for, 
14,  15,  17,  18. 

Wing  pads,  41,  42. 

Wings,  40,  41. 

Winter,  102;  literature  for,  102. 

Wintergreen,  231. 

Wolsey,  Cardinal,  225. 

Woodpecker,  147. 

Worm,  earth,  184-186,  191,  192. 

Wren,  winter,  165. 

Xerxes,  217. 
Yule  log,  214. 


/ 


5909 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


OCT  2  6  1931 
iMUV  1  9  1931 


JUN  8      193^ 

FEB  17  1933 

JUU  1  9  1933 


Form  L-9-35m-8 '28 


UCLA-Young  Research   Ubrary 

LB1532   .W69 

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L  009  619  375  0 


i 


y^mrr:^!-  ^r^v^y  of  CALIFORNI/ 
AT 

LOS  ANGELES 


::.C£- 


*'**''ljil 


